R\u00f6nesans ve Reformun \u00c7\u0131k\u0131\u015f Sebepleri <\/p>\n
R\u00f6nesans ve Reformun \u00c7\u0131k\u0131\u015f Sebepleri
\nve Sonu\u00e7lar\u0131
\nReform:
\n16. yy.da Bat\u0131 Kilisesi\u2019nde ger\u00e7ekle\u015fen dinsel devrim. Siyasal,iktisadi ve toplumsal etkileriyle H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n \u00fc\u00e7 ana kolundan biri olan Protestanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. En b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6nderleri Martin Luther ve Jean Calvin\u2019dir.
\n16. yy. reformcular\u0131n\u0131 ortaya \u00e7\u0131karan Katolik Kilisesi\u2019nin yap\u0131s\u0131 olduk\u00e7a karma\u015f\u0131kt\u0131. Y\u00fczy\u0131llar boyunca kilise,\u00f6zellikle de papal\u0131k makam\u0131 Bat\u0131 Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n siyasal ya\u015fam\u0131yla i\u00e7 i\u00e7e ge\u00e7mi\u015fti. Bunun sonucundan ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan siyasal entrika ve manevralar kilisenin durmadan artan g\u00fcc\u00fc ve zenginli\u011fiyle birle\u015fince kilise ruhani bir g\u00fc\u00e7 kayna\u011f\u0131 olarak yozla\u015fmaya ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. End\u00fcljans uygulamas\u0131 ve kutsal emanetlerin sat\u0131\u015fa \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131 ile din adamlar\u0131 aras\u0131ndaki yolsuzluklar ve dindarlar\u0131n s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fclmesine ve kilisenin manevi yetkisinin zay\u0131flamas\u0131na neden oluyordu.
\n16. yy.dan \u00f6nce de, orta\u00e7a\u011f boyunca Aziz Francesco, Pierre Valdo, Jan Hus ve John Wycliffe gibi reformcu din adamlar\u0131 kilise i\u00e7indeki yozla\u015fmay\u0131 dile getirmi\u015flerdi. 16. yy. ba\u015flar\u0131nda b\u00fcy\u00fck h\u00fcmanist bilgin Desiderius Eromus da ahlaki yozla\u015fmaya ve bo\u015f inan\u00e7lara kar\u015f\u0131 Katolik Kilisesi\u2019nde liberal bir reformun gereklili\u011fini savunmu\u015f ve Hz. \u0130sa\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6rnek al\u0131nmas\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6nermi\u015fti. B\u00fct\u00fcn bunlar Reform\u2019un ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7 g\u00fcn\u00fc say\u0131lan 31 Ekim 1517\u2019de t\u00fcm Azizler Yortusu\u2019nun arifesinde Luther\u2019in Wittenberg\u2019de Schlosskirche\u2019nin kap\u0131s\u0131na Doksan Be\u015f Tez\u2019i asmas\u0131ndan \u00f6nceki reform k\u0131p\u0131rt\u0131lar\u0131yd\u0131.
\nLuther\u2019e g\u00f6re kendisiyle \u00f6nceki reformcular aras\u0131ndaki fark, \u00f6ncekilerin kilise ya\u015fam\u0131nda ki yozla\u015fmaya kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kmakla yetinmelerine kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k, onun sorununun k\u00f6kenini, kilisenin kurtulu\u015f ve kayra \u00f6\u011fretisindeki sapmay\u0131 hedef almas\u0131yd\u0131. Tanr\u0131\u2018n\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131ks\u0131z kayras\u0131n\u0131n end\u00fcljanslara ve bu d\u00fcnyada iyi i\u015f i\u015flenmeye ba\u011flanmas\u0131na katk\u0131da bulunabilece\u011fin \u00f6\u011fretisinin \u0130ncil\u2019lerde yer almad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 savunuyordu. Luther\u2019in kilisenin etik ve ilahiyat bak\u0131m\u0131ndan yenilenmesiyle ilgili yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n ipu\u00e7lar\u0131 buradayd\u0131: Kutsal metinlerin tek ba\u015f\u0131na ba\u011flay\u0131c\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 (sola sciptura)ve i\u015flerle de\u011fil yaln\u0131zca imanla (sola fide) aklanma. Luther Katolik Kilisesi\u2019yle ba\u011flar\u0131 koparma yanl\u0131s\u0131 olmamakla birlikte papal\u0131kla \u00e7at\u0131\u015fma ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmazd\u0131.1520\u2019de Worms\u2019daki \u0130mparatorluk Meclisi (Diet) \u00f6n\u00fcnde yarg\u0131land\u0131,ard\u0131ndan da aforoz edildi. Kilise i\u00e7inde reformu ama\u00e7layan hareket sonunda Bat\u0131 H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n b\u00f6l\u00fcnmesine yol a\u00e7t\u0131.
\nAlmanya\u2019daki Reform k\u0131sa s\u00fcrede farkl\u0131 ak\u0131mlara d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc; bunlar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011fu Luther\u2019in giri\u015fiminden ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z geli\u015fti. Huldryc Zwingli Z\u00fcrich\u2019te olu\u015fturdu\u011fu dinsel y\u00f6netim \u00e7evresinde devleti ve kiliseyi Tanr\u0131\u2019ya hizmet amac\u0131 i\u00e7inde birle\u015ftirdi. Zwingli iman yoluyla aklanma \u00f6nertisinin \u00f6neminde Luther\u2019le anla\u015f\u0131yor,ama Kom\u00fcnyon ayini konusunda ondan \u00e7ok daha k\u00f6ktenci bir g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f benimsiyordu. Luther, Katolik Kilisesinin Kom\u00fcnyon ayininde kutsal ekmek ve \u015farab\u0131n Hz. \u0130sa\u2019n\u0131n ger\u00e7ek bedenine ve kan\u0131na d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fc yolundaki t\u00f6zd\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm\u00fc \u00f6\u011fretisini yads\u0131yor, ama Hz. \u0130sa ger\u00e7ekte her yerde oldu\u011funa g\u00f6re onun bedeninin de ekmek ve \u015farapta haz\u0131r bulundu\u011funu \u00f6ne s\u00fcren t\u00f6zbirli\u011fi \u00f6\u011fretisini savunuyordu. Kom\u00fcnyon\u2019un \u0130sa\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn an\u0131lmas\u0131ndan ve bir imkan ikrar\u0131ndan ba\u015fka anlam ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ileri s\u00fcren Zwingli gibi de d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnm\u00fcyordu.
\nZwingli\u2019nin \u00e7evresinden, ondan daha k\u00f6ktenci olan bir ba\u015fka grup do\u011fdu. K\u00f6ktenci Reformcular kutsal metinlerin ba\u011flay\u0131c\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ilkesinin \u00f6d\u00fcns\u00fcz uygulanmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fini savundular ve \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n vaftiz edilmesine kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131karak Zwingli\u2019den koptular. \u00c7ocukluklar\u0131nda vaftiz edilenleri yeti\u015fkinken yeniden vaftiz ettikleri i\u00e7in Anabaptistler ad\u0131n\u0131 alan grubun \u0130svi\u00e7re\u2019deki kolu Hz. \u0130sa\u2019n\u0131n \u0130ncil\u2019lerde sundu\u011fu \u00f6rne\u011fi izleyerek her t\u00fcrl\u00fc yemin etmeyi reddetti, silah ta\u015f\u0131maya kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131 ve kilise ile devletin kesin olarak birbirinden ayr\u0131lmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fini savundu. Protestanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 benimsedikten sonra Fransa\u2019dan ka\u00e7an Frans\u0131z avukat Jean Calvin\u2019i izleyenler Protestanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n \u00f6teki \u00f6nemli kollar\u0131ndan Kalvencili\u011fi olu\u015fturdular. Calvin Basel\u2019de yeni Reform hareketinin ilk kapsaml\u0131 ve sistematik ilahiyat incelemesi olan Christianae religionis institutio\u2019yu (H\u0131ristiyan Dininin temelleri) yay\u0131mlad\u0131. Calvin Luther\u2019in iman yoluyla aklanma \u00f6nertisini payla\u015fmakla birlikte, dinsel yasalar ile \u0130ncil\u2019i kesin \u00e7izgilerle ay\u0131rmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan Luther\u2019e g\u00f6re H\u0131ristiyan toplumu i\u00e7inde yasalara daha olumlu bir i\u015flev y\u00fckl\u00fcyordu. Calvin, Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n se\u00e7ilmi\u015f kullar\u0131ndan olu\u015fan disiplinli bir toplum idealini Cenevre\u2019de s\u0131nama olana\u011f\u0131 buldu.
\n16. yy. boyunca Reform hareketi \u00f6teki Avrupa \u00fclkelerine de yay\u0131ld\u0131. Y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ortalar\u0131nda Luthercilik Kuzey Avrupa\u2019da egemenli\u011fi kurulmu\u015ftu. Krallar\u0131n \u00e7ok zay\u0131f, soylular\u0131n g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc, kentlerin de az oldu\u011fu, ayr\u0131ca dinsel \u00e7o\u011fulculu\u011fua \u00f6teden beri al\u0131\u015fk\u0131n olan Do\u011fu Avrupa ise Daha k\u00f6ktenci Protestanl\u0131k bi\u00e7imlerine a\u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. \u0130spanya ve \u0130talya ise Kar\u015f\u0131 Reform Hareketinin merkezleri oldu, Protestanl\u0131k buralarda hi\u00e7bir zaman etkinlik kuramad\u0131.
\n\u0130ngiltere\u2019de Reform hareketinin k\u00f6kleri dinsel olmaktan \u00e7ok siyasald\u0131. Papa VII. Clemens\u2019ten bo\u015fanma izni alamayan VIII. Henry papal\u0131\u011f\u0131n yetkisini reddetti ve 1534\u2019te ba\u015f\u0131nda kral\u0131n bulundu\u011fu Anglikan Kilisesini kurdu. 16. ve 17. yy. \u00e7e\u015fitli yasalarla Katoliklerin ibadeti yasakland\u0131,yurtta\u015fl\u0131k haklar\u0131 k\u0131s\u0131tland\u0131, baz\u0131 Katolik papazlar idam cezas\u0131na \u00e7arpt\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131. Bu ceza yasalar\u0131 1791, 1832 ve 1926\u2019da \u00e7e\u015fitli yasalarla y\u00fcr\u00fcrl\u00fckten kald\u0131r\u0131lacakt\u0131. Siyasal sonu\u00e7lar\u0131 bir yana, Henry\u2019nin att\u0131\u011f\u0131 ad\u0131mlar \u0130ngiltere\u2019de dinsel reformun ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturdu. The Book Of Common Prayer (Toplu Dua Kitab\u0131) ad\u0131yla \u0130ngilizce bir ayin kitab\u0131 d\u00fczenlendi. Cenevre\u2019de kald\u0131\u011f\u0131 s\u00fcrede Calvin\u2019den etkilenen John Knox Presbiteryenli\u011fin \u0130sko\u00e7ya\u2019da devlet kilisesi olmas\u0131na \u00f6nc\u00fcl\u00fck etti. B\u00f6ylece \u0130sko\u00e7ya ve \u0130ngiltere\u2019nin birle\u015fmesi sa\u011fland\u0131.
\nElekt\u00f6r II. Johann Georg\u2019un 1667\u2019de 31 Ekim\u2019i Saksonya\u2019da Reform G\u00fcn\u00fc olarak ilan etmesinden sonra bu gelenek \u00f6teki Protestanlarca da benimsenmi\u015ftir. <\/p>\n
R\u00f6nesans:
\n(Frans\u0131zca renaissance, \u0130talyanca rinascita \u201cyeniden do\u011fu\u015f\u201d),Avrupa tarihinde, 14. yy. sonuyla 15. ve 16. yy. kapsayan ve en belirgin \u00f6zelli\u011fi Eski Yunan ve Roma k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn canland\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 olan d\u00f6nem. Ayn\u0131 zamanda bir ke\u015fifler ve ser\u00fcven \u00e7a\u011f\u0131 olan R\u00f6nesans boyunca, astronomide Ptolemaios sisteminin yerini Kopernik sistemi alm\u0131\u015f, ka\u011f\u0131t, matbaa, pusula ve barut gibi yeni \u00fcr\u00fcn ya da teknolojiler yayg\u0131n uygulama alan\u0131 bulmu\u015ftur.
\n\u201cOrta\u00e7a\u011f\u201d kavram\u0131n\u0131 15. yy. bilginleri, bilginleri, Eski Yunan ve Roma d\u00fcnyas\u0131n\u0131n y\u0131k\u0131lmas\u0131yla bu d\u00fcnyan\u0131n kendi y\u00fczy\u0131llar\u0131nda yeniden ke\u015ffedilmesi aras\u0131ndaki (\u201cortadaki\u201d) d\u00f6nemi belirtmek amac\u0131yla ortaya atm\u0131\u015flard\u0131. Ama R\u00f6nesans\u2019\u0131n k\u00f6kleri orta\u00e7a\u011f\u0131n sonlar\u0131nda, 12.yy. ba\u015flayan bir dizi siyasal,toplumsal ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcmde yat\u0131yordu. Bu geli\u015fmelerin ba\u015f\u0131nda R\u00f6nesans\u2019\u0131n anayurdu say\u0131lan \u0130talyan kentlerinin geli\u015fmesi geliyordu. Bu kentlerde soylular, t\u00fcccarlar, rantiyeler ve zanaat\u00e7\u0131lar bir arada ya\u015fay\u0131p \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yor, ayn\u0131 milislerde \u00e7arp\u0131\u015f\u0131yor,evlilik yoluyla ili\u015fki kuruyor,\u00f6zellikle Kilise\u2019nin otoritesine kar\u015f\u0131 ortakla\u015fa direniyordu. Ortak bir d\u00fc\u015fmana kar\u015f\u0131 siyasal bir eylem birli\u011fi bu kentlerin halklar\u0131nda bir topluluk bilinci ve yurtta\u015f ba\u011fl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 yaratmaya ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Kentsel b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015fme hem kent toplumu i\u00e7inde yeni iktidar organlar\u0131n\u0131n olu\u015fmas\u0131na, hem de kentler aras\u0131nda, \u00e7evrelerindeki alanlara sahip olma m\u00fccadelesinin do\u011fmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7t\u0131.
\nDaha 13. yy. \u0130talyan kentlerine \u00f6zg\u00fc bir halk egemenli\u011fi kavaram\u0131 geli\u015fti. \u0130vedi kararlar\u0131n gerekti\u011fi durumlarda bir parlamento toplant\u0131ya \u00e7a\u011f\u0131r\u0131l\u0131yordu. Ama 14. yy. bu kentlerden baz\u0131lar\u0131 kent i\u00e7indeki iktidar kavgalar\u0131 nedeniyle demokratik y\u00f6netim tarz\u0131ndan uzakla\u015farak tek adam y\u00f6netimine y\u00f6nelmeye ba\u015flad\u0131; y\u00fczy\u0131l sonuna gelindi\u011finde signoria yayg\u0131n y\u00f6netim bi\u00e7imi olu\u015fmu\u015ftu. Bu nedenle bir yandan feodalizmin kurumsal yap\u0131s\u0131 y\u0131k\u0131l\u0131rken, bir yandan da feodalizme \u00f6zg\u00fc de\u011ferler yeni bi\u00e7imler alt\u0131nda canlan\u0131yor, b\u00f6ylece R\u00f6nesans D\u00f6neminin karakteristik devlet anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yordu.
\nSonunda kent devleti, daha \u00f6nce tek tek yurtta\u015flar\u0131n bir araya gelmesiyle sa\u011flanan i\u015flevlerin \u00e7o\u011funu \u00fcstlendi; bireyler art\u0131k hi\u00e7bir arac\u0131 olmaks\u0131z\u0131n do\u011frudan devletle kar\u015f\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131yayd\u0131, R\u00f6nesans insan\u0131 hem bir birey olarak kendisinin, hem de yetki alan\u0131 i\u00e7indeki herkes i\u00e7in bir baba, bir anne ve aile olan devletin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n bilincindeydi. \u00d6te yandan kent toplulu\u011fu i\u00e7inde okuryazarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n artmas\u0131 ve bir yeni edebiyat be\u011fenisinin geli\u015fmesi daha \u00f6nce yaln\u0131zca din adamlar\u0131n\u0131n elinde olan k\u00fclt\u00fcr tekeline son verdi. Yeni meslekler, din adam\u0131 olmayanlar aras\u0131nda okuryazarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n artmas\u0131n\u0131n ve uzmanla\u015fman\u0131n bir yans\u0131mas\u0131yd\u0131.
\nH\u00fcmanizm. R\u00f6nesans\u2019\u0131n d\u00fcnya g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcn ilk d\u0131\u015favurumu H\u00fcmanizm olarak bilinen d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce ak\u0131m\u0131yd\u0131. H\u00fcmanizm, orta\u00e7a\u011f\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce ya\u015fam\u0131na egemen olan ve Skolastik felsefeyi yaratan bilgin din adamlar\u0131nca de\u011fil, kilise d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki k\u00fclt\u00fcr adamlar\u0131nca ba\u015flat\u0131ld\u0131. Dante ve Petrarca\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6nc\u00fcl\u00fck etti\u011fi bu ak\u0131m\u0131n ba\u015fl\u0131ca temsilcileri Gionozo Manetti, Leonardo Bruni, Marsilio Ficino, Pico della Mirandola, Lorenzo Valla ve Coluccio Salutati\u2019ydi. 1453\u2019te \u0130stanbul\u2019un Osmanl\u0131lar taraf\u0131ndan fethedilmesi pek \u00e7ok Do\u011fulu ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131n\u0131n Bat\u0131\u2019ya ka\u00e7arak \u00f6nemli kitaplar ve el yazmalar\u0131 ile Yunan ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131l\u0131k gelene\u011fini R\u00f6nesans\u2019\u0131n ana yurduna ta\u015f\u0131malar\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flad\u0131.
\nH\u00fcmanizmin en belirgin \u00f6zelli\u011fi, b\u00fct\u00fcn d\u0131\u015favurumlar\u0131yla ve kazan\u0131mlar\u0131yla insan\u0131 kendine konu edinmesiydi. \u0130kinci olarak H\u00fcmanizm, b\u00fct\u00fcn felsefe ve ilahiyat okullar\u0131n\u0131n ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131\u011f\u0131 do\u011fruluk \u00f6\u011fesini birbiriyle ba\u011fda\u015ft\u0131rmay\u0131 ama\u00e7l\u0131yordu. \u0130nsan\u0131n, ilk g\u00fcnah\u0131n\u0131n kefaretini \u00f6deyecek bi\u00e7imde ya\u015famas\u0131n\u0131 en soylu eylem olarak g\u00f6ren orta\u00e7a\u011f anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n tersine H\u00fcmanistler yarat\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k ve do\u011faya \u00fcst\u00fcn gelme m\u00fccadelesine a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131k veriyorlard\u0131. Son olarak H\u00fcmanizm yitik insan tininin ve bilgeli\u011finin yeniden do\u011fmas\u0131na umut ba\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131; bunun yolu da ilk\u00e7a\u011f\u0131n Yunan ve Roma uygarl\u0131klar\u0131 ile onlar\u0131n de\u011ferlerini yeniden ke\u015ffedip benimsemekten ge\u00e7iyordu. Ama bunu ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131rken H\u00fcmanistler yeni bir d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel bak\u0131\u015f\u0131n do\u011fmas\u0131na ve yepyeni bilgi dallar\u0131n\u0131n geli\u015fmesine katk\u0131da bulundular.
\nR\u00f6nesans D\u00f6neminde \u201cyeniden bulunan\u201d ilk\u00e7a\u011f d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrlerinin \u00e7o\u011fu ger\u00e7ekte orta\u00e7a\u011fda biliniyor, kitaplar\u0131 raflarda duruyordu. R\u00f6nesans\u2019tan \u00f6nce ilk\u00e7a\u011f\u0131 canland\u0131rma ak\u0131mlar\u0131 ya\u015fanm\u0131\u015f, 12. Yy. Aristoteles\u2019in bug\u00fcn bilinen b\u00fct\u00fcn yap\u0131tlar\u0131 derlenmi\u015fti. R\u00f6nesans\u2019\u0131n ger\u00e7ek etkisi insan\u0131 dinsel iktidar\u0131n dayatt\u0131\u011f\u0131 zihinsel kal\u0131plardan \u00f6zg\u00fcrle\u015ftirmek, \u00f6zg\u00fcr ara\u015ft\u0131rma ve ele\u015ftiriyi esinlendirmek, insan d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesinin ve yarat\u0131c\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131\u011f\u0131 olanaklara g\u00fcveni peki\u015ftirmek oldu.
\nR\u00f6nesans\u2019\u0131n siyasal d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesi ise Niccolo Machiavelli\u2019nin II Principe adl\u0131 yap\u0131t\u0131nda en olgun anlat\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 buldu. Siyasette devletin \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131n\u0131n belirleyece\u011fini savundu\u011fu bu \u00fcnl\u00fc yap\u0131tta ideal \u00f6rnek olarak Cesare Borgia\u2019y\u0131 se\u00e7en Machiavelli, siyasal davran\u0131\u015f yasalar\u0131n\u0131 da Roma \u00f6rne\u011fine dayand\u0131r\u0131yordu. Machiavelli\u2019ye g\u00f6re devlet y\u00f6netimi zamand\u0131\u015f\u0131 yasalara ba\u011fl\u0131 bir sanatt\u0131 ve t\u0131pk\u0131 hukuk felsefesi ve hekimlik gibi ortak H\u0131ristiyan etti\u011finin k\u0131s\u0131tlanmalar\u0131ndan kurtulmal\u0131yd\u0131.
\nH\u00fcmanist d\u00fcnya g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc ve onun do\u011furdu\u011fu R\u00f6nesans, \u0130talya\u2019dan kuzeye
\ndo\u011fru Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n her k\u00f6\u015fesine ula\u015ft\u0131. Okuryazarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ve klasik metinlerin b\u00fcy\u00fck bir h\u0131zla yay\u0131lmas\u0131na olanak veren matbaa bu geli\u015fmeyi daha da \u00e7abukla\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131. H\u00fcmanistlerin sa\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel at\u0131l\u0131m H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131kta Reform hareketinin k\u0131v\u0131lc\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 yakt\u0131 ama Reform ger\u00e7ekte R\u00f6nesans\u2019\u0131n laik de\u011ferlerine kar\u015f\u0131 bir tepki niteli\u011fi ta\u015f\u0131yordu. 16. yy. sonuna gelindi\u011finde Reform ve Kar\u015f\u0131 Reform hareketleri ars\u0131ndaki m\u00fccadele Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel ya\u015fam\u0131na damgas\u0131n\u0131 vurmu\u015ftu.
\n\u0130talya\u2019da H\u00fcmanistler Latince\u2019nin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra \u00e7ok say\u0131da yerel leh\u00e7ede yap\u0131tlar verdiler. Edebiyatta yerel dillerin \u00f6nem kazanmas\u0131, bunlar\u0131n zamanla ulusal diller olarak geli\u015fmesine, hem ilk \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n bilim ve sanat yap\u0131tlar\u0131n\u0131n, hem de Kitab\u0131 Mukaddes\u2019in yerel dillere \u00e7evrilmesine yol a\u00e7t\u0131. Bu geli\u015fmede okuryazarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n bir ayr\u0131cal\u0131k olmaktan \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131na b\u00fcy\u00fck katk\u0131da bulundu.
\n15. yy. ba\u015flar\u0131nda H\u00fcmanist e\u011fitimin merkezi \u0130talya\u2019yd\u0131. Ama ayn\u0131 y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonlar\u0131na do\u011fru Londra, Paris, Anvers, daha kuzeydeki Avrupa kentlerinin de kendi ba\u015flar\u0131na bire merkez durumuna geldi. Ulusal dillerin g\u00fc\u00e7lenmesi \u00e7e\u015fitli \u00fclkelerde edebiyat alan\u0131nda \u00f6nemli yap\u0131tlar\u0131n \u00fcretilmesine ortam haz\u0131rlad\u0131.
\nBilim. Orta\u00e7a\u011f\u2019\u0131n evren ve do\u011fa anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131, Aristoteles\u2019in fizi\u011fi, Gelanos\u2019un t\u0131p bilgisi, Ptolemaios\u2019un astronomisi ve H\u0131ristiyan ilahiyat\u0131n\u0131n bir kar\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131yd\u0131. Bu anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n yerine yeni bir bilimsel d\u00fcnya g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcn ge\u00e7mesini sa\u011flayan bilim adamlar\u0131ndan yaln\u0131zca Kopernik R\u00f6nesans D\u00f6neminde ya\u015fad\u0131. Ama R\u00f6nesans, eski Yunan ve Roma\u2019n\u0131n bilim ve felsefe yap\u0131tlar\u0131n\u0131 yayg\u0131nla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131p tan\u0131tarak bu bilimsel devrimin d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce alan\u0131ndaki \u00f6n ko\u015fullar\u0131n\u0131 haz\u0131rlad\u0131. \u00d6rne\u011fin yakla\u015f\u0131k 2000 y\u0131ld\u0131r yer\u2019in merkez say\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 astronomide,ilk \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n G\u00fcne\u015f merkezi kuramlar\u0131 ilk kez R\u00f6nesans D\u00f6neminde tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lmaya ba\u015flad\u0131. H\u00fcmanistler aritmetik ve geometriyi de be\u015feri bilimler aras\u0131na katt\u0131lar, mekan\u0131n d\u00fczenlenmesinde geometri kurallar\u0131n\u0131 uygulayan ressam ve mimarlar perspektif kurallar\u0131n\u0131 saptad\u0131lar. Bu d\u00f6nemde t\u00fcm \u00fcniversitelerde cebir en g\u00f6zde bilim dallar\u0131ndan biri idi. Teknik adamlar 15. ve 16. yy. kuramsal bilimlerden \u00e7ok toplumsal \u00e7evreyi de\u011fi\u015ftiren ba\u015far\u0131lar elde ettiler. En b\u00fcy\u00fck teknik ilerleme matbaan\u0131n geli\u015ftirilmesi ve yayg\u0131nla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 oldu. Bu geli\u015fme ileti\u015fim tarihinde neredeyse yaz\u0131n\u0131n geli\u015ftirilmesine e\u015f de\u011ferde bir devrim yaratt\u0131.
\nResim ve Heykel. R\u00f6nesans\u2019\u0131n en \u00f6nemli sonu\u00e7lar\u0131ndan biride g\u00fczel sanatlar alan\u0131ndaki ilerlemelerdi. Dinsel ba\u011fnazl\u0131klar\u0131n k\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve yeni g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerin \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00f6nemde gerek resim, gerekse heykel sanat\u0131nda ger\u00e7ek\u00e7i bir bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 egemen oldu. \u0130nsan ideal g\u00fczellik kavram\u0131 i\u00e7inde ideal oranlar\u0131nda ele al\u0131nd\u0131. Dinsel konular\u0131n i\u015fleni\u015finde bile ger\u00e7e\u011fe yak\u0131nl\u0131k ye\u011flendi.
\nRoma\u2019da etkinlik g\u00f6stermeye ba\u015flamadan \u00f6nce ilk yap\u0131tlar\u0131n\u0131 Floransa\u2019da ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftiren Leonardo da Vinci, bu d\u00f6nem resimleriyle Y\u00fcksek R\u00f6nesans\u2019\u0131n habercisiydi. Leonardo yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 anatomik \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalarla insan\u0131 en do\u011fru bi\u00e7imde betimlemenin yollar\u0131n\u0131 arad\u0131. Bu d\u00f6nemde ama\u00e7 uyum ve denge idi. Ayr\u0131ca hareket de \u00f6nem kazanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.
\nPerspektif kurallar\u0131n\u0131n saptanmas\u0131 heykel sanat\u0131n\u0131 da etkiledi. Heykelciler mekan i\u00e7inde yer alan bir heykelin ya da bir y\u00fczeydeki kabartmalar\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kacak bi\u00e7im bozulmalar\u0131ndan daha dramatik bir etki elde etmek i\u00e7in perspektif kurallar\u0131n\u0131 kulland\u0131lar. Vasari, R\u00f6nesans heykelini Nicola Pisano ile ba\u015flatsa da pek \u00e7ok sanat tarih\u00e7isi bug\u00fcn ilk R\u00f6nesans heykelcisi olarak Donatello\u2019yu kabul eder. Donatello yaln\u0131zca klasik \u00f6\u011feleri kullanmakla kalmay\u0131p, Antik \u00e7a\u011f ruhunu yap\u0131tlar\u0131na yans\u0131tt\u0131.
\nMimarl\u0131k. Mimarl\u0131k alan\u0131nda da R\u00f6nesans, antik \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n yeniden do\u011fu\u015fu oldu. Ama bu d\u00f6nem yap\u0131tlar\u0131 antik \u00f6rneklerin kopyalar\u0131 de\u011fil, 15. yy. anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 ve d\u00fcnya g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc do\u011frultusunda yorumlar\u0131yd\u0131. R\u00f6nesans mimarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ilk temsilcisi, yar\u0131m kalm\u0131\u015f bir Gotik D\u00f6nem yap\u0131s\u0131 olan Floransa Katedrali\u2019nin kubbesini tamamlayan F. Brunellesci say\u0131l\u0131r. R\u00f6nesans sanat\u0131n\u0131n y\u00f6nleni\u015finde temel dayanak noktalar\u0131ndan birini olu\u015fturan Perspektifin kurallar\u0131n\u0131 ortaya koyan ilk kurallardan biri de, ressam Masaccio ve mimar alberti ile birlikte Brunellaschi\u2019ydi Perspektif sayesinde mimarlar tasarlad\u0131klar\u0131 yap\u0131n\u0131n daha bitmeden, hatta yap\u0131m\u0131na bile ba\u015flanmadan nas\u0131l g\u00f6r\u00fcnebilece\u011fini \u00e7izerek ifade edebiliyorlard\u0131. Bu da mimarl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ta\u015f\u00e7\u0131l\u0131k ya da marangozluk gibi bir el i\u015f\u00e7ili\u011fi olmaktan \u00e7\u0131kartarak ileri bir tasar\u0131m sanat\u0131 d\u00fczeyine getirdi. Yeni mimarl\u0131k anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n kuramlar\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturup yeti\u015ftirenler ise Alberti, Filarete vb ondan sonraki ku\u015fa\u011f\u0131n sanat\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131 oldu.
\nR\u00f6nesans D\u00f6neminde daha pek \u00e7ok tasar\u0131mda kullan\u0131ld\u0131 ve yap\u0131da uyguland\u0131. Bunun nedeni merkezi \u015feman\u0131n, insan\u0131 ya\u015fam\u0131n merkezine yerle\u015ftiren R\u00f6nesans d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce bi\u00e7imini ve d\u00fcnya g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc mimarl\u0131kta yans\u0131tmas\u0131yd\u0131. Ger\u00e7ekten de b\u00f6yle merkezi planl\u0131 bir yap\u0131n\u0131n ortas\u0131nda duruldu\u011funda her \u015feyin o merkeze y\u00f6nelik olarak d\u00fczenlendi\u011fi bak\u0131\u015f herhangi ba\u015fka bir y\u00f6ne \u00e7ekecek hi\u00e7bir yap\u0131 aks\u0131n\u0131n bulunmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 hemen alg\u0131lan\u0131yordu. Asl\u0131nda b\u00f6yle bir merkezin \u00f6zel konumu i\u00e7 mekan\u0131n hangi noktas\u0131nda durulursa durulsun, kolayl\u0131kla kavranabiliyordu.
\nAyn\u0131 d\u00f6nemde ve izleyen y\u0131llarda mimarl\u0131k \u00e7e\u015fitli ki\u015fisel y\u00f6neli\u015flerin getirdi\u011fi \u00e7ok zengin bir ifade olana\u011f\u0131na ula\u015ft\u0131. Bu tutumun en iyi \u00f6rnekleri A. Palladio\u2019nun R\u00f6nesans\u2019\u0131n klasik H\u00fcmanizm \u00e7izgisi \u00fczerindeki son kuramc\u0131 mimard\u0131. \u00c7a\u011fda\u015flar\u0131 Michelangelo\u2019dan da Venedik temsilcileri Sansavino ile Sanmicheli\u2019den de etkilenmi\u015fti. B\u00fct\u00fcn bu etkilerin izleri, ilk b\u00fcy\u00fck yap\u0131s\u0131 olan Vicenza\u2019daki belediye binas\u0131nda a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Palladio, Bazilika ad\u0131yla bilinen onararak b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde de\u011fi\u015ftirdi\u011fi bu eski yap\u0131da i\u00e7eriye \u00e7ekti\u011fi b\u00fcy\u00fck balkonlarla cephede bir \u0131\u015f\u0131k-g\u00f6lge kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131\u011f\u0131, bir hareket yaratm\u0131\u015f, b\u00f6ylece R\u00f6nesans\u2019\u0131n sakin, dura\u011fan mimarl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan, baro\u011fun hareketli d\u00fczenlenmesine do\u011fru ilk ad\u0131m\u0131 atanlardan biri olmu\u015ftu. Onun klasik mimarl\u0131k \u00f6\u011felerini gittik\u00e7e daha fazla uygulad\u0131\u011f\u0131 yap\u0131lar\u0131 R\u00f6nesans\u2019\u0131 son bir kez daha doruk noktas\u0131na ula\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
R\u00f6nesans ve Reformun \u00c7\u0131k\u0131\u015f Sebepleri R\u00f6nesans ve Reformun \u00c7\u0131k\u0131\u015f Sebepleri ve Sonu\u00e7lar\u0131 Reform: 16. yy.da Bat\u0131 Kilisesi\u2019nde ger\u00e7ekle\u015fen dinsel devrim. Siyasal,iktisadi ve toplumsal etkileriyle H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n \u00fc\u00e7 ana kolundan biri olan Protestanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. En b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6nderleri Martin Luther ve Jean Calvin\u2019dir. 16. yy. reformcular\u0131n\u0131 ortaya \u00e7\u0131karan Katolik Kilisesi\u2019nin yap\u0131s\u0131 olduk\u00e7a karma\u015f\u0131kt\u0131. Y\u00fczy\u0131llar boyunca …<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1403,1406],"tags":[1669,1668,1344,1667],"class_list":["post-467","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-odevler","category-sosyal-bilgiler-odevleri","tag-jean-calvin","tag-martin-luther","tag-reform","tag-ronesans-ve-reformun-cikis-sebepleri"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/467","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=467"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/467\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=467"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=467"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=467"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}