M\u0131s\u0131r Tarihi <\/p>\n
\u0130.\u00d6. 3100 civar\u0131nda beraberinde insana \u00f6zg\u00fc uzun deneyimler sahibi olan M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n yaz\u0131l\u0131 tarihi ba\u015flar. Tar\u0131ma ait topraklar\u0131 kesin olarak belirlenmi\u015f, dininin belli ba\u015fl\u0131 unsurlar\u0131 olu\u015fturulmu\u015f, dili ve yaz\u0131s\u0131 saptanm\u0131\u015f, \u00f6nemli kurumlar\u0131 yerlerini alm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Yeni Krall\u0131k d\u00f6neminde (\u0130.\u00d6. 1500) M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar bronzun varl\u0131\u011f\u0131na ra\u011fmen \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131n\u0131 \u015fekillendirmeyi biliyorlar ve zorunluymu\u015f gibi ta\u015ftan yontulmu\u015f ve cilalanm\u0131\u015f ayn\u0131 b\u0131\u00e7aklar\u0131 kullan\u0131yorlard\u0131. Cenaze t\u00f6renleriyle ilgili rahipler, yaz\u0131 daha ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmam\u0131\u015fken ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f olan atalar\u0131n\u0131n onlara s\u00f6zl\u00fc olarak aktard\u0131klar\u0131 c\u00fcmleleri h\u00e2l\u00e2 tekrarlamaktayd\u0131lar. K\u0131saca M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131 tarihi medeniyet yolunda insan\u0131n en uzun deneyimini olu\u015fturmaktad\u0131r. Bu da d\u00f6rd\u00fcnc\u00fc binden H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131na kadar olan d\u00f6nemi kapsar. \u0130nsanlar bu \u00e7ok uzun zaman diliminde ayn\u0131 dili konu\u015ftular, bu d\u00fcnya ve \u00f6l\u00fcmden sonraki d\u00fcnya hakk\u0131nda ayn\u0131 fikirleri payla\u015ft\u0131lar ve ayn\u0131 kurallar\u0131n zorunlulu\u011fu alt\u0131nda ya\u015fad\u0131lar.
\n M\u0131s\u0131r medeniyeti sadece eskili\u011finden de\u011fil ayn\u0131 zamanda s\u00fcreklili\u011finden dolay\u0131 da ilgin\u00e7tir. Devam\u0131 etti\u011fi s\u00fcre g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcne al\u0131n\u0131rsa bu s\u00fcreklilik dikkat \u00e7ekicidir. Ve bunun en \u00f6nemli sebeplerinden biri M\u0131s\u0131r medeniyetinin s\u0131k\u0131 s\u0131k\u0131ya co\u011frafi bir ko\u015fula, Nil Vadisi\u2019ne ba\u011fl\u0131 olmas\u0131d\u0131r. Medeniyet buraya yani M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a d\u0131\u015far\u0131dan getirilmemi\u015f ve bizzat vadide do\u011fup geli\u015fmi\u015ftir. Medeniyet Nil vadisine \u00f6zg\u00fc nilotigue ve Afrikal\u0131d\u0131r. Asl\u0131nda onu daha g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc k\u0131lan da budur. Bu y\u00fczden de istilac\u0131lar anar\u015fi ve zay\u0131f d\u00f6nemlerde vadiye hakim olmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131klar\u0131nda toplum i\u00e7inde sindiriliyorlar, \u00fclkenin gereklerine uyum sa\u011flayamazlarsa d\u0131\u015flan\u0131p uzakla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131yorlard\u0131. M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019daki bu kesintisiz uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n s\u00fcreklili\u011fi \u00f6zellikle evrensel tarihi anlamam\u0131za yard\u0131mc\u0131d\u0131r. Bu uygarl\u0131k bizi o olmadan hi\u00e7bir \u015fey kavrayamayaca\u011f\u0131m\u0131z Afrika k\u0131tas\u0131ndaki eski ya\u015fam hakk\u0131nda ayd\u0131nlatmakla kalmay\u0131p ayn\u0131 zamanda eski insan\u0131n ya\u015fam\u0131n\u0131 etkilemi\u015f olan manevi veya teknik baz\u0131 yenilikleri incelememize, tarihlendirmemize de yard\u0131m eder. Madenlerin ke\u015ffinden, tar\u0131m\u0131n, hayvanc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n, in\u015fa tekniklerinin, dokuman\u0131n, sulaman\u0131n geli\u015ftirilmesinden, d\u00fcmenin icad\u0131ndan, alt\u0131n kullan\u0131m\u0131ndan \u00e7ok tanr\u0131l\u0131 dindeki manevi geli\u015fmelerin g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcp H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131na kadar geli\u015fimi etkilemi\u015f b\u00fcy\u00fck k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck her olay\u0131n izlerini M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da g\u00f6rmek m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr.
\n D\u00fcnyan\u0131n bu en eski medeniyeti ayn\u0131 zamanda \u00e7ok k\u0131sa bir s\u00fcredir tan\u0131nan medeniyetlerden biridir. Bu medeniyetinden yeniden ke\u015ffedilmesi sadece bir y\u00fczy\u0131ldan biraz fazla bir s\u00fcredir. Ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilmi\u015ftir ki, bu da bizi Egyptologie\u2019nin yeni bir bilim dal\u0131 oldu\u011funu a\u00e7\u0131klar. \u00d6zetlemi\u015f bu sentez Egyptologie\u2019yi yaratan Jean Fran\u00e7ois Champollion (1790-1831) bulduklar\u0131 sayesinde ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilebilmi\u015ftir.
\n Champollion 1822 y\u0131l\u0131nda M\u0131s\u0131r dilini ke\u015ffetmi\u015f, b\u00f6ylelikle M\u0131s\u0131r tarihi ger\u00e7eklik haline gelmi\u015ftir. M\u0131s\u0131r Medeniyeti hakk\u0131nda bildiklerimizi daha ge\u00e7en y\u00fczy\u0131ldan beri sahip olmaya ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrsek daha ne gibi s\u00fcrprizlere kar\u015f\u0131la\u015faca\u011f\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 bilmeyiz. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde h\u00e2l\u00e2 M\u0131s\u0131r piramitlerinin nas\u0131l yap\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 hakk\u0131nda kesin bilgilere sahip de\u011filiz. Bir \u00e7ok bilim adam\u0131 uzun zamandan beri bu konuyla u\u011fra\u015ft\u0131klar\u0131 ve bir \u00e7ok projeyi denedikleri halde kesin \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcme ula\u015famam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Dikilita\u015flar\u0131n nas\u0131l bir teknikle dikildi\u011fi sorusunun yan\u0131t\u0131 daha 1999 y\u0131l\u0131nda bulunmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n
KARANLIK \u00c7A\u011eLAR(Prehistorik ve Thinis D\u00f6nemi)<\/p>\n
Eski M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n geri kalm\u0131\u015f d\u00f6nemle ilgili ilk sorun kronolojik s\u0131rad\u0131r. Bu soruyu cevaplayabilmek i\u00e7in tarih\u00e7ilerin elinde \u00e7ok az bilgi bulunmaktad\u0131r. M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da y\u0131llar o s\u0131rada tahtta oturan firavunun saltanat\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131ndan itibaren say\u0131l\u0131rd\u0131. Her h\u00fck\u00fcmdar de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011finde y\u0131llar yeniden s\u0131f\u0131rdan ba\u015flard\u0131. Bu y\u00fczden bilinen ilk kral\u0131n tahtta \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f tarihini saptamak i\u00e7in b\u00fct\u00fcn krallar\u0131n\u0131n saltanat s\u00fcrelerini bilmemiz gerekir. Bu g\u00fcn \u00fc\u00e7 m\u0131s\u0131r kral\u0131n\u0131n hanedanl\u0131k s\u00fcresini kesin olarak bilmemizi g\u00f6kbilimsel kronolojiye bor\u00e7luyuz. Astronomi sayesinde elde edilmi\u015f tarihlerin kral listeleri (m\u0131s\u0131r belgelerinde ve Manethon\u2019un yazd\u0131klar\u0131ndan), soya\u011fa\u00e7lar\u0131, e\u015flemeler, M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n kom\u015fu halklar\u0131n\u0131n tarihleri ile birle\u015ftirilerek M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da tarihin ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131 olarak g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczden \u00f6nce 30. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015flar\u0131 saptanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u201cKarbon 14\u201d veya di\u011fer ad\u0131yla \u201cradyokarbon\u201d metodu sayesinde de M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n tarih \u00f6ncesi d\u00f6nemlerinin kontrol edilebilmesi m\u00fcmk\u00fcn hale gelmi\u015ftir. Prehistorik ve Predinastik (Hanedanl\u0131k \u00d6ncesi) a\u00e7\u0131dan bu tarihler daha \u00f6nce d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclenlerden farkl\u0131d\u0131r ve kesin kronoloji \u015f\u00f6yledir:<\/p>\n
Fayum B (Neolitik) \u0130.\u00d6. 5700 – 4300 dolaylar\u0131
\nEl Omari (Neolitik) \u0130.\u00d6. 4000 – 3500 dolaylar\u0131
\nNakada II (Predinastik) \u0130.\u00d6. 3500 – 3300 dolaylar\u0131
\nHierakonpolis (I. Hanedan) \u0130.\u00d6. 3000
\nSnofru (IV. Hanedan) \u0130.\u00d6. 2800
\nSenvosret III (XII. Hanedan) \u0130.\u00d6. 1800 – 1700 dolaylar\u0131<\/p>\n
En son metotlarla da onaylanm\u0131\u015f olan M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da Tarihi \u00c7a\u011f\u2019\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131 olarak kabul edilen 3100 tarihi bizi yan\u0131lg\u0131ya d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcrmemelidir. Bu tarih yapay ve yakla\u015f\u0131k olup yaz\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131 de\u011fil bilinen yaz\u0131 an\u0131tlar\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131n\u0131 bildirmektedir. Ger\u00e7ekte M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da medeniyet bu tarihten \u00e7ok daha eskiye dayan\u0131r. Medeniyet ve yaz\u0131 birbirinden farkl\u0131 iki kavram\u0131 olu\u015fturmaktad\u0131r. M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da Nil vadisinde uygarl\u0131k tarihinin ger\u00e7ekten \u00f6nem ta\u015f\u0131yan y\u00fczy\u0131llar\u0131n\u0131n Eski Krall\u0131k d\u00f6neminin ba\u015flar\u0131na rastlayan 5. binle \u0130.\u00d6. 2780 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda ge\u00e7ti\u011fini s\u00f6yleyebiliriz. Ger\u00e7ekte de dil, yaz\u0131, din, kurumlar ve \u00fclke siyasal birli\u011fi bu tarihler aras\u0131nda kurulmu\u015flard\u0131r. Burada bu d\u00f6nemi \u00f6neminden dolay\u0131 de\u011ferlendirmeliyiz. Bu d\u00f6nem M\u0131s\u0131r tarihinin karanl\u0131k d\u00f6nemini olu\u015fturdu\u011fundan, eskili\u011finden ve eldeki verilerin eksikli\u011finden tam olarak tan\u0131nmamaktad\u0131r. <\/p>\n
Paleolitik D\u00f6nem: Uzun y\u0131llar M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da , Avrupa\u2019da ya\u015fanm\u0131\u015f olan \u201cta\u015f \u00e7a\u011flar\u0131\u201dn\u0131n ya\u015fanmam\u0131\u015f oldu\u011funa inan\u0131ld\u0131. Oysa ki M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da yaln\u0131zca neolitik \u00e7a\u011f de\u011fil, paleolitik \u00e7a\u011f bile mevcuttu. Sonu\u00e7 olarak her d\u00f6nemde Nil Vadisi\u2019nde ya\u015fam mevcuttu. Son \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar sonucunda \u201cilk \u00f6nc\u00fc M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar\u201d\u0131n Akdeniz d\u00fcnyas\u0131ndan \u00f6nce \u0130.\u00d6. 13000ler de Paleolitik \u00c7a\u011f\u0131n sonlar\u0131nda Yukar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da bu\u011fday ve arpa tar\u0131m\u0131 yapt\u0131klar\u0131 tahmin edilmekteydi. Oysa bug\u00fcn bu varsay\u0131m ge\u00e7ersizdir. Yine de kesin olan vadinin bat\u0131s\u0131nda \u0130.\u00d6. 7000\u2019de yeti\u015ftirilmese de arpan\u0131n t\u00fcketilmi\u015f oldu\u011fudur. <\/p>\n
Neolitik D\u00f6nem: Yap\u0131lan kaz\u0131lar sonucunda M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da tam bir neolitik d\u00f6nem ya\u015fand\u0131\u011f\u0131, bak\u0131r\u0131n kullan\u0131m\u0131ndan evvel tar\u0131m\u0131n, hayvanlar\u0131n evcille\u015ftirilmesinin ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirildi\u011fi ve seramik sanat\u0131n\u0131n geli\u015fti\u011fi ispatlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.
\n Neolitik d\u00f6nemle birlikte vadinin g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fc tamamen de\u011fi\u015fir. \u0130klim g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz iklimine yak\u0131nd\u0131r. Nil k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fcl\u00fcr ve M\u0131s\u0131r kalabal\u0131kla\u015f\u0131r. K\u0131y\u0131 b\u00f6lgelerinin kurumas\u0131 ve \u00e7\u00f6le d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fmesi ya\u015fayanlar\u0131 Nil\u2019in sular\u0131yla verimli hale gelmi\u015f olan k\u0131s\u0131tl\u0131 alandaki topraklarda yerle\u015fmeye y\u00f6nlendirir. Neolitik bu topluluklar\u0131 hakl\u0131 olarak hanedanlar d\u00f6nemi M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar\u0131n atalar\u0131 olarak kabul etmek m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr. Bu insanlar kesin olarak tek bir \u0131rka mensup de\u011fillerdi. Onlar Akdeniz tipi insanlar\u0131n ve son paleotik d\u00f6nemden gelen zencileri and\u0131ran tipin bir kar\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131yd\u0131lar. Onlar\u0131n bir zamanlar \u00fczerinde ya\u015fad\u0131klar\u0131 topraklar bug\u00fcn, Nil\u2019in ta\u015f\u0131m\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu bal\u00e7\u0131klar aras\u0131nda g\u00f6m\u00fcl\u00fc haldedir. Bu y\u0131\u011f\u0131lmalardan dolay\u0131 suyun y\u00fckselmesi de neolitik y\u00fczeyde kaz\u0131lar yap\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 imkans\u0131z hale getirmektedir.
\n\u0130lk M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar\u0131n alet tak\u0131mlar\u0131 \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131 ve ta\u015ftan olu\u015fur. Bunlar \u00f6zellikle yontmalar\u0131n\u0131n g\u00fczelli\u011fiyle dikkat \u00e7ekerler. Yaz\u0131l\u0131 tarihin ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131ndan itibaren dikkat \u00e7eken M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 sanat\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n ustal\u0131klar\u0131 onlardan \u00f6nce ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131 yontucular\u0131n\u0131n devam\u0131 olmalar\u0131yla a\u00e7\u0131klanabilir. Vadinin ilk sahipleri gruplar halinde kul\u00fcbelerde ya\u015famaktayd\u0131lar ve s\u0131\u011f\u0131r, koyun, ke\u00e7i gibi hayvanlar\u0131 yeti\u015ftirmeyi bilmekteydiler. Evcille\u015ftirilmi\u015f tek hayvan k\u00f6pekti ve b\u00fcy\u00fck olas\u0131l\u0131kla s\u00fcr\u00fc hayvanlar\u0131n\u0131n bek\u00e7ili\u011finde, kolektif ya\u015famda k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fcmsenmeyecek yeri olan avda yard\u0131mc\u0131yd\u0131. Tar\u0131m\u0131n bu insanlar\u0131n ya\u015fam\u0131nda \u00f6nemli bir yer tuttu\u011funu kaz\u0131lar sonunda bulunmu\u015f tar\u0131m aletlerinden, ta\u015ftan \u00e7apalardan ve \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131ndan oraklardan anlamaktay\u0131z. Elde ettikleri ekinlerin taneleri kilden yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ambarlarda saklanmaktayd\u0131. Neolitik \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n insanlar\u0131 bu taneleri una d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrmeyi bilmekteydiler. Kaz\u0131lar sonucunda \u00e7ok say\u0131da de\u011firmenta\u015f\u0131 bulunmu\u015ftur. \u0130lgin\u00e7 olan nokta bulunmu\u015f olan orak ve de\u011firmen ta\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n tarihi zamanda kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olanlar\u0131n benzeri olmal\u0131d\u0131r. Yine bu d\u00f6nemde insanlar postlar\u0131 haz\u0131rlamay\u0131, has\u0131r ve kuma\u015f dokumay\u0131, dikmeyi biliyorlard\u0131. Z\u0131pk\u0131nlar, bilezikler, i\u011fneler yapmak i\u00e7in kemi\u011fi i\u015flemekteydiler. \u00d6l\u00fcler embriyon pozisyonu denilen dizler \u00e7eneye katlanarak, yan yat\u0131r\u0131larak k\u00f6y\u00fcn yak\u0131n\u0131ndaki oval \u00e7ukurlara g\u00f6m\u00fcl\u00fcyorlard\u0131. Sonu\u00e7 olarak neolitik uygarl\u0131k burada b\u00fct\u00fcn maddi unsurlar\u0131 olu\u015fturarak M\u0131s\u0131r uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n geli\u015fmesi i\u00e7in gerekli zemini haz\u0131rlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ya\u015fanacak \u015fehirleri kurup, tar\u0131m alanlar\u0131n\u0131 haz\u0131rlayarak insana \u00f6zg\u00fc g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcy\u00fc olu\u015fturan i\u015fte bu neolitik uygarl\u0131kt\u0131r.<\/p>\n
MISIR\u2019IN KLAS\u0130K \u00c7A\u011eI<\/p>\n
KRAL NARMER
\n \u0130\u00d6 3200\u2019e do\u011fru Hierakonpolisli Narmer o d\u00f6nemde mevcut olan iki krall\u0131\u011f\u0131 birle\u015ftirdi. Bunlar Yukar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r (ba\u015fkenti Hiyarokompolis, tanr\u0131s\u0131 akbaba, tanr\u0131\u00e7a Nehet, simgesi Beyaz Ta\u00e7 idi) ve A\u015fa\u011f\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r (ba\u015fkenti Buto, tanr\u0131s\u0131 y\u0131lan, tanr\u0131\u00e7a Uto, simgesi K\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 Ta\u00e7 idi.) krall\u0131klar\u0131yd\u0131. \u0130ki taca sahip olan Narmer otuz hanedan\u0131n art arda geli\u015fiyle \u00fc\u00e7 bin y\u0131l boyunca ve B\u00fcy\u00fck \u0130skender\u2019in geli\u015fine (333) kadar M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131 y\u00f6neten krallar\u0131n ilkiydi.
\nNarmer ba\u015fkentini ilk iki hanedan krallar\u0131n\u0131n ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131 Tis\u2019de kurdu. Narmer\u2019in Delta ucunda yeni Memfis kentini kurdu\u011fu san\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. \u00dclkenin birli\u011fini koruyan bu ilk h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar\u0131n yapt\u0131klar\u0131 i\u015flerin \u00f6nemli oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylemek gerekir.
\n M\u0131s\u0131r tarihi d\u00f6rt b\u00fcy\u00fck d\u00f6neme ayr\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r: III. IV. V. ve VI. Hanedanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 kapsayan Eski Krall\u0131k, XI. Ve XII. Handanl\u0131kla Orta Krall\u0131k, XVIII. XIX. ve XX. Handanl\u0131kla Yeni Krall\u0131k ve son olarak Yunan fethine kadar olan Ge\u00e7 D\u00f6nem\u2019dir.<\/p>\n
ESK\u0130 KRALLIK D\u00d6NEM\u0130 (\u0130.\u00d6. 2780-2400)
\n Eski Krall\u0131k d\u00f6neminin tarihi ne yaz\u0131k ki \u00e7ok az bilinmektedir. Asl\u0131nda bu d\u00f6neme ait bir\u00e7ok yap\u0131t bulunmaktad\u0131r, fakat y\u00f6netim, ordu, siyasal tarihe ait belge olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan sadece maddi uygarl\u0131k hakk\u0131nda bilgi sahibiyiz.
\n Eski \u0130mparatorlu\u011fun firavunlar\u0131 kendilerinden \u00f6nce gelenlerin bilgece siyasetinin meyvelerini toplayarak M\u0131s\u0131r’\u0131n geli\u015fmesi i\u00e7in etkinlikler yapt\u0131lar. Zoser s\u00fclalesinin ilk h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131, son derece ak\u0131ll\u0131 ve becerikli bir adam olan \u0130mhotep adl\u0131 vezirinin yard\u0131m\u0131yla b\u00fct\u00fcn kurulu\u015flar\u0131 yenileyerek, monar\u015fi d\u00f6nemini ba\u015flatm\u0131\u015f oldu. Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n ba\u015fkentini k\u0131sa s\u00fcre i\u00e7inde M\u0131s\u0131r tarihinde \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck yeri olan Memfis \u015fehrine getirdi. Bununla birlikte Memfis s\u00fclaleleri devri ba\u015flad\u0131. Zoser’den sonra gelenler, \u00f6zellikle 4.S\u00fclaleden Kral Snefru, M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n askeri g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc artt\u0131rd\u0131 ve krall\u0131k hakimiyetini Nubye’ye uzatarak Sina madenlerini ele ge\u00e7irdi. Sonraki prensler, halk \u00fczerinde ve y\u00f6neticiler \u00fczerinde otorite sa\u011flayamad\u0131lar ve b\u00f6ylece o d\u00f6nemde M\u0131s\u0131r’da \u00e7ok g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc ve etkili olan Ayn \u015eems rahipleri, kendi \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131na uygun d\u00fc\u015fen kral adaylar\u0131n\u0131 ba\u015fa getirmeye ba\u015flad\u0131. Bu i\u00e7 kar\u0131\u015f\u0131kl\u0131klara ra\u011fmen M\u0131s\u0131r, yo\u011fun bir askeri etkinlik s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcyor, do\u011fu s\u0131n\u0131rda tedirginlik uyand\u0131ran Asyal\u0131 halklara sefer d\u00fczenliyor ve Libya’da otoritesini g\u00fc\u00e7lendiriyordu.
\n Piramitler devri olarak da bilinen Eski Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n 4.S\u00fclalesi d\u00f6neminde Snefru, ikinci Snefru, Kefren ve Mikerinas bu d\u00f6nemde yap\u0131lan piramitlerdir. Di\u011fer piramitler ise 3. S\u00fclale zaman\u0131nda Coser ve 5. S\u00fclale zaman\u0131nda Unas piramitleri in\u015fa edilmi\u015ftir. \u0130lk piramit olan Kral Coser\u2019in piramididir. Yedi basamakl\u0131 bu piramitlin bir e\u015fi daha yoktur.
\n Daha sonra kontrol\u00fc eline alan 6. S\u00fclale zaman\u0131nda geni\u015fleme siyaseti devam ediyor ve bu arada da Akdeniz\u2019in do\u011fusundaki sitelerle s\u0131k\u0131 ticaret ili\u015fkileri kuruluyordu.
\n S\u00fclalenin en dikkate de\u011fer ismi Pepin I, Sina yar\u0131madas\u0131ndaki bedevileri yenerek M\u0131s\u0131r’a bak\u0131r madenlerinin yolunu a\u00e7m\u0131\u015f,Nubye’yi birtak\u0131m iktisadi yararlar sa\u011flayaca\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in M\u0131s\u0131r’\u0131n bir s\u00f6m\u00fcrgesi haline getirmi\u015fti. Vakitsiz \u00f6len firavun, yerine 6 ya\u015f\u0131ndaki o\u011flunu b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Pepin II (o\u011flu) d\u00f6nemi \u00e7ok uzun s\u00fcrd\u00fc fakat, Pepin II, babas\u0131 gibi, bu \u00e7ok geni\u015f ve merkeziyet\u00e7ilikten uzak imparatorlu\u011fu y\u00f6netecek otoriteye sahip de\u011fildi. B\u00f6ylece valiler ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z hareket etme al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 kazanm\u0131\u015flard\u0131. Pepin I\u2019 in ordu birlikleri \u00f6n\u00fcnde boyun e\u011fmek zorunda kalm\u0131\u015f ve \u015fu ana kadar her f\u0131rsatta M\u0131s\u0131r’\u0131n vesayetinden kurtulmak i\u00e7in f\u0131rsat kollayan bedeviler, Pepin II’nin g\u00fc\u00e7s\u00fczl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc ve valilerin ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 f\u0131rsat bilip, 2300 y\u0131l\u0131nda hi\u00e7bir direni\u015fle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fmadan M\u0131s\u0131r’\u0131n i\u00e7lerine kadar girdiler.Krall\u0131k iktidar\u0131n\u0131n ve y\u00f6netici s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n acizli\u011fi halk\u0131n ayaklanmas\u0131na sebep oldu ve bu bir sosyal devrime yol a\u00e7t\u0131. O g\u00fcnden beri M\u0131s\u0131r g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr bir anar\u015fi i\u00e7ine girdi ve bu 8.S\u00fclalenin sonuna kadar s\u00fcrd\u00fc. Bu devrimle M\u0131s\u0131r 3 krall\u0131\u011fa ayr\u0131ld\u0131:
\n1-Asyal\u0131 istilac\u0131lar\u0131n ele ge\u00e7irip oturdu\u011fu Delta Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131
\n2-Heraklepolis dolaylar\u0131nda Orta M\u0131s\u0131r Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131
\n3-Teb dolaylar\u0131nda da Yukar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131
\n Bu krall\u0131klar aras\u0131nda Teb s\u00fclalesi di\u011fer krall\u0131klar\u0131 yenerek topraklar\u0131n\u0131 geni\u015fletti ve b\u00f6ylece Orta Krall\u0131k D\u00f6nemi, Teb S\u00fclalesi taraf\u0131ndan kurulmu\u015f oldu.
\n Asl\u0131nda Eski Krall\u0131k, ya\u011fmac\u0131lar\u0131n istilas\u0131 alt\u0131nda, yok olmayla sonu\u00e7lanan \u00e7\u00f6kme d\u00f6nemine girmeden \u00f6nce uygarl\u0131k ve siyasi kurulu\u015flar alan\u0131nda dikkate de\u011fer bir dirilik g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. \u00dclkeyi, ba\u015fkentleri olan Memfis’ten despot\u00e7a y\u00f6neten bir h\u00fck\u00fcmdar, i\u015fba\u015f\u0131nda kendilerine hizmet eden merkezi bir h\u00fck\u00fcmet ve bunu y\u00f6neten bir vezir vard\u0131 ki;ayn\u0131 zamanda adalet,maliye ve tar\u0131m bakan\u0131d\u0131r. \u0130dari y\u00f6netim bak\u0131m\u0131ndan M\u0131s\u0131r, illere b\u00f6l\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015f ve bu iller valilerin otoritesi alt\u0131na konulmu\u015ftu. Bu valilerin yetkisi \u00e7ok geni\u015fti. Ayr\u0131ca h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131n, mahalli y\u00f6netimi ve valilerin icra bi\u00e7imini fiilen kontrol etmesi m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fildi. Bunun i\u00e7in b\u00fct\u00fcn Eski Krall\u0131k s\u00fcresince devlet memurlar\u0131 kendilerini ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z sayd\u0131lar. H\u00fck\u00fcmdar bu duruma kar\u015f\u0131 koyam\u0131yordu, zamanla valilik babadan o\u011fla ge\u00e7en bir makam oldu. B\u00f6ylece merkeziyet\u00e7ilik ve merkez iktidar\u0131 b\u00fcsb\u00fct\u00fcn bozuldu.
\n Bu yar\u0131derebeylik d\u00fczeninin M\u0131s\u0131r birli\u011fi taraf\u0131ndan ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131\u011f\u0131 tehlikeyi fark eden Teb monar\u015fisi \u00f6b\u00fcr krall\u0131klara kar\u015f\u0131 kazand\u0131\u011f\u0131 zaferden sonra, merkezi iktidara ba\u011fl\u0131 bir y\u00f6netim d\u00fczeni kurmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.Bu sayede Orta Krall\u0131k kurulacakt\u0131. Teb monar\u015fisinin ilk i\u015fi, M\u0131s\u0131r birli\u011fini yeniden kurmak ve ona kaybetti\u011fi topraklar\u0131 geri vermek oldu. Bu birli\u011fin ba\u015f\u0131 Mentuhotep II idi. Bu h\u00fck\u00fcmdar Asyal\u0131lara, Nubyelilere ve Habe\u015flere kar\u015f\u0131 bir s\u00fcr\u00fc seferler yapt\u0131. Ondan sonra gelen Mentuhotep III ayn\u0131 siyaseti g\u00fctt\u00fc ve 11.S\u00fclalenin son h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar\u0131 da K\u0131z\u0131ldeniz ile yeniden ticaret ili\u015fkileri kurdular.12.S\u00fclale zaman\u0131nda M\u0131s\u0131r Yak\u0131ndo\u011fu’da yeniden en g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc devlet niteli\u011fini yeniden kazand\u0131. Bu d\u00f6nemde dikkate de\u011fer \u00fc\u00e7 h\u00fck\u00fcmdar vard\u0131; M\u0131s\u0131r’\u0131n kudretini yenileyen ve canland\u0131ranlar oldular:Amennemes I,Sesostris I ve Sesostris III.
\n Onlar\u0131n etkisi M\u0131s\u0131r’\u0131n Asya s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131na, Libya’ya ve Sina yar\u0131madas\u0131na kadar uzanmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flad\u0131. Sesostris I ; \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc \u00e7a\u011flayana kadar ula\u015ft\u0131 ve Sesostris III de bu b\u00f6lgeleri kontrol alt\u0131na ald\u0131. Daha sonra Nubye’yi d\u00fczenli bir \u015fekilde s\u00f6m\u00fcrgele\u015ftirdi, Libya’ya yap\u0131lan sefer ya\u011fmac\u0131lara kar\u015f\u0131 polis tedbiri niteli\u011findeydi. Sina ve Punt’ (Somali k\u0131y\u0131lar\u0131) a seferler d\u00fczenlenmesi de ticari ama\u00e7l\u0131yd\u0131.
\n Bundan sonraki silik prensler taht\u0131, zorba komploculara b\u0131rakt\u0131 ve bunlar ba\u015fa ge\u00e7tiklerinden itibaren zaten git gide bir d\u00fc\u015f\u00fc\u015fte olan monar\u015fi rejimini bozmu\u015f oldular.B\u00f6ylece Hiksos istilas\u0131na sebep oldular.
\n Deltaya ilk gruplar 1730 da, sonuncular da 1680 de vard\u0131lar. Bunlar M\u0131s\u0131r tarihinin an\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 uzun zaman saklayaca\u011f\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck y\u0131k\u0131m yapt\u0131ktan sonra A\u015fa\u011f\u0131 ve Orta M\u0131s\u0131r’a yerle\u015ftiler.
\n Zamanla Hiksoslar art\u0131k \u00fclkenin sahibi olmu\u015f, ancak Yukar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r’daki yerli s\u00fclale, Hiksos hakimiyetini tan\u0131mak \u015fart\u0131yla varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrebilmi\u015fti. Teb s\u00fclalesi bir y\u00fczy\u0131l Hiksoslar\u0131n hakimiyeti alt\u0131nda kald\u0131ktan sonra bir kurtulu\u015f sava\u015f\u0131na giri\u015fti ve \u00f6nce Memfis’i ele ge\u00e7irdi sonra da Hiksoslar\u0131n ba\u015fkenti Avaris’i ele ge\u00e7irdi. Onlar\u0131 Filistin’e kadar kovalad\u0131. O zaman ba\u015fta bulunan Ahmes I, M\u0131s\u0131r birli\u011fini yeniden ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirdi ve M\u0131s\u0131r tarihinin en parlak s\u00fclalesi 18. s\u00fclaleyi ba\u015flatm\u0131\u015f oldu. Daha sonra gelen Mentuhotep III, valili\u011fin babadan o\u011fla ge\u00e7mesini kald\u0131rd\u0131 ve g\u00f6reve bir s\u0131n\u0131r getirdi. Sesostris III, topra\u011f\u0131n verimlili\u011fini sa\u011flayan kanallar ve barajlar yapt\u0131rd\u0131.Bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma sonunda Fayyum, M\u0131s\u0131r’\u0131n en zengin b\u00f6lgelerinden biri oldu.
\n 12.S\u00fclalenin d\u00fc\u015f\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnden sonraki anar\u015fi d\u00f6neminde h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar, Sesostris III\u2019 \u00fcn reformlar\u0131n\u0131 koruyamad\u0131lar. Ve bu y\u00fczden valilik, parayla sat\u0131labilen, miras b\u0131rak\u0131labilen bir makam haline gelmi\u015fti ve her ne kadar Teb S\u00fclalesi, Yeni Krall\u0131k d\u00f6nemini ba\u015flatmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fsa da bu i\u015fe kendini 18.S\u00fclale adayacakt\u0131. Orta Krall\u0131k d\u00f6nemi ise art\u0131k tarih olmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n
YEN\u0130 KRALLIK D\u00d6NEM\u0130
\n Yeni Krall\u0131k d\u00f6nemindeki M\u0131s\u0131r (M\u00d61600-1100), 18.S\u00fclalenin ve \u00f6zellikle \u00fclkenin i\u00e7 ve d\u0131\u015f siyasetine, ki\u015filikleriyle y\u00f6n veren birka\u00e7 ola\u011fan\u00fcst\u00fc h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131n eseridir. Bu s\u00fclalenin h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar\u0131,beceriklilikleriyle s\u0131k s\u0131k ba\u015f g\u00f6steren taht kavgalar\u0131n\u0131n sebep oldu\u011fu kar\u0131\u015f\u0131kl\u0131klar\u0131 \u00f6nlemeyi bildiler, b\u00f6ylece siyasi iktidar\u0131n uzun \u00f6m\u00fcrl\u00fc olmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flad\u0131lar.
\n Uluslararas\u0131 alanda, M\u0131s\u0131r siyaseti yeni meydana gelen olaylara uygun bi\u00e7imde reaksiyon g\u00f6steriyordu. Hiksoslar\u0131n istilas\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n en \u00e7ok, Asya\u2019dan gelen sald\u0131r\u0131lardan korkmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fini a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a g\u00f6stermi\u015fti. B\u00f6yle bir tehdidin tekrarlanmas\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6nlemek i\u00e7in 18.S\u00fclale daha sonralar\u0131 Asya\u2019da bir M\u0131s\u0131r imparatorlu\u011fu kurmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131 ve bu siyasetin, M\u0131s\u0131r uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n gelece\u011fi bak\u0131m\u0131ndan son derece \u00f6nemli sonu\u00e7lar\u0131 oldu.
\n Hiksoslar\u0131 Deltadan att\u0131ktan sonra, Ahmes I\u2019in ilk i\u015fi Nubye\u2019yi ele ge\u00e7irmek oldu. Ondan sonra gelen Tutmes I ve Tutmes III, Sudan\u2019a kadar ilerlediler ve orada M\u0131s\u0131r uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 hakim k\u0131ld\u0131lar. Ama M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n emperyalist arzular\u0131 en \u00e7ok Asya\u2019da kendini g\u00f6sterdi. Ahmes I, ilk yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 seferde Fenike\u2019yi y\u00f6netimi alt\u0131na ald\u0131. Amenofis ve \u00f6zellikle Tutmes \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu zaman\u0131nda M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 F\u0131rat\u2019a kadar geni\u015fledi. Geni\u015fleme Tutmes III zaman\u0131nda yeni bir g\u00fc\u00e7le devam etti. M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a kar\u015f\u0131 ittifak kurmak i\u00e7in Asyal\u0131 prensler aras\u0131nda ger\u00e7ekle\u015fen yak\u0131nla\u015fma, Asya da durumu g\u00fc\u00e7le\u015ftiriyordu. Bunun ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7eken Mitanni idi. Tutmes III Asya\u2019da M\u0131s\u0131r hakimiyeti kurmak i\u00e7in sekiz sefer yapt\u0131. Birinci seferde kral, kendisine kar\u015f\u0131 birle\u015fenleri Megiddo\u2019da ezdi. Sonra Celile\u2019yi Sur\u2019a kadar ele ge\u00e7irdi. Fethedilen \u00fclkeyi \u00f6rg\u00fctledikten sonra Tutmes, L\u00fcbnan\u2019\u0131 savunan ba\u015fl\u0131ca d\u00fc\u015fman\u0131 olan Kade\u015f prensini devirmeyi gerekli g\u00f6rd\u00fc ve Kade\u015f \u00fczerine y\u00fcr\u00fcd\u00fc. \u00c7abucak teslim olan Kade\u015f\u2019in ard\u0131ndan Filistin,Fenike ve L\u00fcbnan\u2019\u0131n da fethedilmesi Asya\u2019da sa\u011flam bir harekat \u00fcss\u00fc sa\u011flad\u0131, \u00f6zellikle Fenike limanlar\u0131na sahip olmak, m\u0131s\u0131r birliklerini denizden daha kolayca g\u00f6t\u00fcrmeye elveri\u015fli oluyordu.
\n Tutmes III \u015fimdi de F\u0131rat y\u00f6resine g\u00f6z koymu\u015ftu ve kafas\u0131na koydu\u011funu da yapt\u0131. B\u00f6ylece hemen hemen b\u00fct\u00fcn Asya krall\u0131klar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a vergi \u00f6demeye ba\u015flad\u0131. Art\u0131k Tutmes Asya\u2019n\u0131n da hakimiydi.
\nTutmes son Asya prenslerini bast\u0131rd\u0131ktan sonra \u00f6ld\u00fc. Yerine Amenofis II geliyor. Ayaklanmalar\u0131 bast\u0131r\u0131yor, Mitanni ile bir anla\u015fma politikas\u0131 i\u00e7erisine giriyor ve bu politika, meyvelerini Tutmes IIII zaman\u0131nda veriyor. Mitanni ve M\u0131s\u0131r bir ittifak antla\u015fmas\u0131 imzal\u0131yor ve Firavun,Mittanni\u2019nin k\u0131zlar\u0131ndan biriyle evleniyor. Bu ittifak asl\u0131nda , M\u0131s\u0131r \u2018a kafa tutmaya yetenekli tek devlet olan Hitit \u0130mparatorlu\u011funa kar\u015f\u0131 y\u00f6neltilmi\u015ftir.
\n Amenofis III hi\u00e7bir bak\u0131mdan kendinden \u00f6nceki krallara benzemiyordu. \u00c7ok rahat ve tasas\u0131z biriydi ve Asya\u2019daki politika onu ilgilendirmiyordu. Bu davran\u0131\u015f gerileme d\u00f6neminin sebeplerindendir.
\n Hitit kral\u0131 \u015euppiluliuma, bu s\u0131rada Mittanni\u2019ye sald\u0131rm\u0131\u015f,Hurrileri ezmi\u015f ve Bat\u0131 Asya\u2019n\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fck k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131 ele ge\u00e7irmi\u015fti. Amenofis III ve Amenofis IIII m\u00fcttefiklerini yard\u0131ms\u0131z b\u0131rakt\u0131lar ve bu y\u00fczden Asya\u2019daki M\u0131s\u0131r \u0130mparatorlu\u011funun hemen hemen b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fc \u00e7\u00f6kt\u00fc. Bununla birlikte \u015euppiluliuma\u2019dan sonra gelenler,Hitit zaferlerini ayakta tutmay\u0131 ba\u015faramad\u0131lar ve bu sayede M\u0131s\u0131r Kenan \u00fclkesinde etkisini s\u00fcrd\u00fcrebildi.
\n Asya\u2019da fetihler yapma politikas\u0131 19.S\u00fclalenin h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar\u0131nca yeniden ele al\u0131nd\u0131. Sethi, Filistin\u2019de M\u0131s\u0131r hakimiyetini, Hititler taraf\u0131ndan yard\u0131m g\u00f6ren ve aralar\u0131nda g\u00fc\u00e7 birli\u011fi kuran prenslerin ordusunu yendikten sonra,yeniden kurdu. Tutmes III\u2019\u00fcn siyasetini ele alarak L\u00fcbnan\u2019\u0131 istila etti, Hitit kral\u0131 M\u00fcrsil, M\u0131s\u0131r ilerlemesini durdurmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131 ama Kade\u015f\u2019te yenildi. Buna ra\u011fmen Sethi I, otoritesini Suriye\u2019de sa\u011flamla\u015ft\u0131rmay\u0131 ba\u015faramad\u0131. Sethi I\u2019in krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n sonuna kadar M\u0131s\u0131r, Asya siyasetine kar\u0131\u015fam\u0131yor.
\n M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n aradan \u00e7ekilmi\u015f olmas\u0131 Hititler i\u00e7in elveri\u015fli bir durumdu;b\u00f6ylece yeniden Suriye ve L\u00fcbnan\u2019\u0131 kontrol edebilecekti. Sethi I\u2019den sonra Ramses II g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc ve h\u0131rsl\u0131 bir prensti, ama Hitit h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131 Muvattali de ayn\u0131 derecede h\u0131rsl\u0131 ve g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fcyd\u00fc. B\u00f6ylece iki h\u00fck\u00fcmdar aras\u0131nda sava\u015f ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz olmu\u015ftu. Muvattali ilk hamleyi yapt\u0131,sava\u015ftan kesin bir sonu\u00e7 al\u0131namad\u0131. Sava\u015f y\u0131llarca s\u00fcrebilirdi ama Muvattali\u2019nin \u00f6lmesi Hitit\u2019in kar\u0131\u015f\u0131p tekrar d\u00fczelmesi olay\u0131n ak\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 uzatt\u0131 ve en sonunda Hitit h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131 Hattu\u015fil III ve Ramses II bir ittifak yapt\u0131lar. Tarihte Kade\u015f bar\u0131\u015f\u0131 olarak ge\u00e7en bu antla\u015fma Bat\u0131 Asya\u2019ya yar\u0131m y\u00fczy\u0131ll\u0131k bir bar\u0131\u015f sa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131.
\nDaha sonraki y\u0131llarda ba\u015fka tehlikeler \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r i\u00e7in. Bunlar\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda Asur devleti geliyordu,\u00f6b\u00fcr\u00fc Balkanlar\u0131 ve K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck Asya\u2019y\u0131 i\u015fgal edecek olan Hint-Avrupa dalgalar\u0131n\u0131n geli\u015fiydi. Daha sonra Filistin ba\u015fkald\u0131rd\u0131, bu s\u0131rada Ramses II\u2019nin yerine Mernaptah ge\u00e7mi\u015fti ve Filistin\u2019i yeniden ele ge\u00e7irdi.<\/p>\n
\u00c7\u00d6K\u00dc\u015e D\u00d6NEM\u0130
\n 20.S\u00fclalenin kurucusu tahta \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 zaman Asya\u2019da ve M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131nda bile durum kar\u0131\u015f\u0131kt\u0131. Ramses III yeni bir istila tehlikesi kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda bulundu\u011funu anlad\u0131 ve ordusunu yeniden \u00f6rg\u00fctledi. Hititler,Filistin ve Suriye, istilac\u0131lar \u00f6n\u00fcnde teslim oldular.
\n Ramses III\u2019\u00fcn g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc direni\u015fi M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck bir felaketten kurtard\u0131. \u0130stilac\u0131lar\u0131n donanmas\u0131 b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcyle yok edildi. Bunun \u00fczerine deniz kavimleri Filistin\u2019i b\u0131rakt\u0131lar. Bu ikinci sava\u015f Libyal\u0131lar\u0131n giri\u015fimlerini p\u00fcsk\u00fcrtt\u00fc. M\u0131s\u0131r duruma hakim olarak, Asya\u2019da imparatorlu\u011fu yeniden kurdu. Ard\u0131ndan gelen g\u00fc\u00e7s\u00fcz ve otoritesiz prensler Ramses III\u2019\u00fcn eserini tehlikeli durumda b\u0131rakt\u0131lar ve Yeni \u0130mparatorlu\u011fun sonunda(1085), M\u0131s\u0131r art\u0131k Asya politikas\u0131n\u0131 elden b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.
\n 18. S\u00fclalenin en parlak d\u00f6neminden sonra M\u0131s\u0131r, Perslerin istilas\u0131na maruz kald\u0131. (M\u00d6 525) Daha sonra M\u00d6 332 y\u0131l\u0131nda B\u00fcy\u00fck \u0130skender M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131 Perslerden ald\u0131 ve \u0130skenderiye kentini kurdu.
\n \u0130skender\u2019in M\u00d6 323\u2019de \u00f6lmesi ile generallerinden Ptolemaios M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 y\u00f6neticilerden olu\u015fan yeni bir s\u00fclale ba\u015flatt\u0131. Bu s\u00fclale MS 30 y\u0131l\u0131nda Cleopatra\u2019n\u0131n kendisini \u00f6ld\u00fcrmesi sonucunda son buldu. B\u00fcy\u00fck tah\u0131l stoklar\u0131ndan dolay\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a g\u00f6z koymu\u015f olan Roma bu devleti ele ge\u00e7irdi.
\n H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a olduk\u00e7a erken bir tarihte girdi. Roma \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu ikiye b\u00f6l\u00fcnd\u00fckten sonra (395) \u0130skenderiye, Bizans\u2019a (Do\u011fu Roma) ba\u011fland\u0131 ve daha sonra bu kent 642\u2019de M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 yayma fetihlerine giri\u015fen Araplara teslim oldu. Arap egemenli\u011fine girdikten sonra \u00fclkeyi uzun s\u00fcre \u015eam ya da Ba\u011fdat\u2019ta bulunan Emevi ve Abbasi halifelerin atad\u0131\u011f\u0131 valiler y\u00f6netti.
\n 969\u2019da Fat\u0131milerin M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131 ele ge\u00e7irmesinden sonra Kahire ba\u015fkent ilan edildi. Bug\u00fcn hala e\u011fitim vermeyi s\u00fcrd\u00fcren ve d\u00fcnyan\u0131n en eski e\u011fitim kurumlar\u0131ndan biri olan El-Azhar, bu d\u00f6nemde Kahire\u2019de kuruldu. 1171\u2019de Selahaddin Eyyubi\u2019nin Fat\u0131milerin y\u00f6netimine son vermesiyle \u00fclke Eyyubilerin y\u00f6netimine girdi. Selaaddin\u2019den sonra gelen t\u00fcm y\u00f6netimler M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n zenginli\u011fini t\u00fcketti.
\n 1250\u2019de y\u00f6netim Memluklar\u0131n eline ge\u00e7ti. 1260\u2019da b\u00fcy\u00fck bir darbe yaparak y\u00f6netimi ele ge\u00e7iren I.Baybars, \u00c7erkez k\u00f6kenli Memluklar\u0131n g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir devlet kurmas\u0131na \u00f6n ayak oldu. Bu arada Abbasi hanedan\u0131ndan birini Kahire\u2019de halife ilan ederek M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n \u0130slam \u00fclkeleri aras\u0131ndaki g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc per\u00e7inledi. Memluklar d\u00f6neminde M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n Arap k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn egemenli\u011fine girme s\u00fcreci de tamamland\u0131.
\n Yavuz Sultan Selim 1517\u2019de Ridaniye sava\u015f\u0131 sonunda M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131 Osmanl\u0131 topraklar\u0131na katt\u0131. Bu seferle halifelikte Osmanl\u0131 padi\u015fahlar\u0131na ge\u00e7ti VE M\u0131s\u0131r Osmanl\u0131 \u0130mparatorlu\u011funun bir eyaleti oldu. Memluk beyleri zamanla yeniden g\u00fc\u00e7lendiler ve 18.yy\u2019da y\u00f6netimi ele ge\u00e7irdiler.
\n Fransa \u0130mparatoru Napolyon, 1798\u2019de Piramitler \u00c7at\u0131\u015fmas\u0131nda Memluklar\u0131 yendi ve M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a girdi. Ama Frans\u0131z donanmas\u0131, \u0130skenderiye dolaylar\u0131nda yap\u0131lan Nil sava\u015f\u0131nda Amiral Horatio Nelson komutas\u0131ndaki \u0130ngiliz deniz g\u00fcc\u00fc taraf\u0131ndan yok edildi. Ard\u0131ndan Osmanl\u0131lar\u0131n da Fransa\u2019ya sava\u015f a\u00e7mas\u0131 \u00fczerine Frans\u0131z ordusu M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019dan \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131ld\u0131.
\n Frans\u0131zlara kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7arp\u0131\u015fmak \u00fczere M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a g\u00f6nderilen Osmanl\u0131 birliklerinin komutanlar\u0131ndan Kavalal\u0131 Mehmed Ali Pa\u015fa, Kahire\u2019de \u00e7ok g\u00fc\u00e7lenince Osmanl\u0131 padi\u015fah\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a vali olarak atand\u0131. Mehmed Ali Pa\u015fa Memluklar\u0131n etkisini yok etti ve 10 y\u0131l boyunca ordular\u0131 Osmanl\u0131 ad\u0131na Arabistan,Sudan ve Yunanistan\u2019da sava\u015ft\u0131. Sonunda 1831\u2019de Suriye\u2019ye bir sefer d\u00fczenleyince, Osmanl\u0131lar, Mehmed Ali Pa\u015fa\u2019ya kar\u015f\u0131 harekete ge\u00e7tiler, ama ordular\u0131 yenilerek geri \u00e7ekilmek zorunda kald\u0131lar. Daha sonra Osmanl\u0131lar\u0131 bir kez daha yenen M\u0131s\u0131r g\u00fc\u00e7lerinin Suriye\u2019yi almas\u0131na Avrupa devletleri engel oldu, ama bu sava\u015f sonunda, Mehmed Ali Pa\u015fa, M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n ve Sudan\u2019\u0131n ger\u00e7ek h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131 olarak tan\u0131nd\u0131.
\n Mehmed Ali Pa\u015fa, 1848\u2019devalili\u011fi, o\u011flu \u0130brahim Pa\u015fa\u2019ya b\u0131rakana kadar M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da bir \u00e7ok yenili\u011fe ve geli\u015fmeye \u00f6n ayak oldu.
\n Mehmed Ali Pa\u015fa ad\u0131llar\u0131ndan olan Said Pa\u015fa, Frans\u0131zlara S\u00fcvey\u015f kanal\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7ma izni verdi. Kanal 1869\u2019da \u0130smail Pa\u015fa\u2019n\u0131n valili\u011fi s\u0131ras\u0131nda tamamland\u0131. M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da bu d\u00f6nemde demir yollar\u0131, telgraf, deniz fenerleri ve limanlar gibi ba\u015fka ilerlemeler de sa\u011flad\u0131. Osmanl\u0131 Sultan\u0131 Abd\u00fclaziz \u0130smail Pa\u015fa\u2019ya i\u00e7i\u015flerinde daha fazla ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131k sa\u011flad\u0131. Bu d\u00f6nemdeki a\u015f\u0131r\u0131 harcamalar M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n bor\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n giderek b\u00fcy\u00fcmesine yol a\u00e7t\u0131. Sonunda S\u00fcvey\u015f kanal\u0131 hisseleri \u0130ngiltere\u2019ye sat\u0131ld\u0131. \u0130smail Pa\u015fa 1876\u2019da M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n mali i\u015flerinin Frans\u0131zlar ve \u0130ngilizler taraf\u0131ndan denetlenmesini kabul etmek zorunda kald\u0131. \u0130ki y\u0131l sonra da Osmanl\u0131 h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131 onu valilikten ald\u0131 ve y\u00f6netim en b\u00fcy\u00fck o\u011flu Tevfik Pa\u015fa\u2019ya ge\u00e7ti.
\n 19.yy\u2019da M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 albay Arabi Pa\u015fa \u00f6nderli\u011finde halk ayakland\u0131 ve 1852\u2019de milliyet\u00e7i bir h\u00fck\u00fcmet kuruldu. Ayaklanmalar ba\u015flay\u0131nca \u0130ngiliz donanmas\u0131 \u0130skenderiye\u2019yi bombalayarak i\u015fgal etti. Arabi Pa\u015fa\u2019y\u0131 yenen \u0130ngiliz ordusu Kahire\u2019yi ald\u0131. \u00dclke bundan sonra g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fc\u015fte Osmanl\u0131 ama ger\u00e7ekte \u0130ngiltere taraf\u0131ndan y\u00f6netildi. \u00c7o\u011funlu\u011fu \u0130ngiliz komutan\u0131 olan yeni bir M\u0131s\u0131r ordusu kuruldu. \u0130ngiliz y\u00f6netimi alt\u0131nda Fransa\u2019ya olan bor\u00e7lar \u00f6dendi.
\n 1914\u2019te Osmanl\u0131 ve \u0130ngiltere farkl\u0131 taraflarda sava\u015fmaya ba\u015flay\u0131nca, \u0130ngilizler M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131 resmen koruma alt\u0131na ald\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klad\u0131lar. Sava\u015ftan sonra M\u0131s\u0131r milliyet\u00e7ili\u011fi daha da g\u00fc\u00e7lendi ve \u00e7\u0131kan ayaklanmalar kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda \u0130ngiltere M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a kendi kendilerini y\u00f6netme hakk\u0131n\u0131 vermek zorunda kald\u0131lar. <\/p>\n
MISIR\u2019IN BA\u011eIMSIZLI\u011eI<\/p>\n
1922\u2019de Kral Fuad y\u00f6netiminde ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z bir M\u0131s\u0131r birli\u011fi kuruldu. 1923\u2019de yap\u0131lan anayasayla M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n iki meclisi bir parlamentoya ba\u011fl\u0131 anayasal bir krall\u0131k olmas\u0131na karar verildi. Ama \u0130ngilizler M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n Sudan \u00fczerinde tam denetim kurmas\u0131na izin vermedikleri gibi, \u00f6zellikle S\u00fcvey\u015f Kanal\u0131\u2019n\u0131 korumak \u00fczere, M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da askeri birlikler bulundurmay\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrd\u00fcler. \u0130ki y\u0131l sonra M\u0131s\u0131r halk\u0131 ilk kez bir parlamento se\u00e7iminde oy kulland\u0131. Saad Zaglul\u2019\u00fcn ba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131nda kurulan h\u00fck\u00fcmet, \u0130ngiltere ve kralla ters d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce birka\u00e7 ay i\u00e7inde istifa etti. \u0130ngiltere, kral ve parlamento aras\u0131ndaki s\u00fcrt\u00fc\u015fmeler nedeniyle \u00fclke uzun s\u00fcre siyasal dengesine kavu\u015famad\u0131. Kral Faruk\u2019un ba\u015fa ge\u00e7mesinden sonra 1936\u2019da M\u0131s\u0131r ve \u0130ngiltere aras\u0131nda \u00f6nemli bir antla\u015fma imzaland\u0131. Bu antla\u015fmayla \u0130ngilizler 1956\u2019ya kadar S\u00fcvey\u015f Kanal\u0131\u2019n\u0131n savunmas\u0131n\u0131 y\u00fcr\u00fctecek birlikler d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019dan askerlerini \u00e7ekmeyi kabul etti. Buna kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k M\u0131s\u0131r, Sudan\u2019\u0131n y\u00f6netimini \u0130ngilizlerle payla\u015fmay\u0131 ve sava\u015f \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131 durumunda \u0130ngiliz ordusunun \u00fcs olarak kullan\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 onaylad\u0131. II. D\u00fcnya Sava\u015f\u0131\u2019nda, Alman ve \u0130talyan ordular\u0131 bat\u0131dan M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a girdiler; ama 1942\u2019deyenilerek geri \u00e7ekildiler. Bu sava\u015f\u0131n ard\u0131ndan M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar, \u0130ngiliz birliklerinin Kanal b\u00f6lgesini terk etmesini ve Sudan\u2019dan \u00e7ekilmesini istedi. \u0130stekleri kabul edilmeyen M\u0131s\u0131r h\u00fck\u00fcmeti imzalanan antla\u015fmay\u0131 ge\u00e7erli saymad\u0131.
\n 1948\u2019de I. \u0130srail-Arap sava\u015f\u0131nda M\u0131s\u0131r ordusunun yenilgisi ve g\u00fc\u00e7lenen milliyet\u00e7ilik hareketleri Kral Faruk y\u00f6netiminin y\u0131pranmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7t\u0131. 1952 Temmuz\u2019unda milliyet\u00e7i ve reform yanl\u0131s\u0131 bir grup subay y\u00f6netimi eline ald\u0131. Kral \u00fclkeyi terk etmeye zorland\u0131 ve 1953\u2019te General Muhammed Necib d\u00f6neminde cumhuriyet ilan edildi. Ertesi y\u0131l onun yerine Albay Cemal Nas\u0131r ge\u00e7ti. 1956\u2019da ba\u015fkan Nas\u0131r\u2019\u0131n S\u00fcvey\u015f Kanal\u0131\u2019n\u0131 kamula\u015ft\u0131raca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klamas\u0131ndan sonra \u0130srail, \u0130ngiliz ve Frans\u0131z g\u00fc\u00e7leri kanal b\u00f6lgesine asker \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131lar. ABD\u2019nin araya girmesiyle Kanal M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n eline kald\u0131. Devlet art\u0131k M\u0131s\u0131r Arap Cumhuriyeti diye an\u0131l\u0131yordu. Gereken sanayile\u015fme ve geli\u015fme de yava\u015f yava\u015f sa\u011flan\u0131yordu.
\n 1967\u2019de M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n, \u0130srail\u2019in Elat liman\u0131na uzanan Akabe K\u00f6rfezi\u2019ni kapatma giri\u015fimi, iki \u00fclke aras\u0131nda yeni bir sava\u015fa neden oldu. M\u0131s\u0131r ve Arap g\u00fc\u00e7leri (\u00dcrd\u00fcn,Suriye ve Irak) yenildi. S\u00fcvey\u015f Kanal\u0131 kapat\u0131ld\u0131 ve \u0130srail kanal\u0131n do\u011fu k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131n denetimini ele ge\u00e7irdi. Kanal 1975\u2019te yeniden hizmete a\u00e7\u0131ld\u0131.
\n Ba\u015fkan Nas\u0131r\u2019\u0131n 1970\u2019te \u00f6lmesinden sonra M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131na Enver Sedat ge\u00e7ti. \u0130srail\u2019e kar\u015f\u0131 yeni bir sava\u015f a\u00e7t\u0131. ABD\u2019nin ikinci arabuluculu\u011fuyla Camp David Antla\u015fmas\u0131 imzaland\u0131. Bu antla\u015fma Arap \u00fclkeleri aras\u0131nda b\u00fcy\u00fck bir tepki yaratt\u0131 ve M\u0131s\u0131r Arap birli\u011finden \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131ld\u0131. \u00dclke i\u00e7inde de siyasal huzursuzluk ba\u015f g\u00f6stermi\u015fti. 1981\u2019de Ba\u015fkan Sedat\u2019\u0131n \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fclmesinden sonra ba\u015fa ge\u00e7en H\u00fcsn\u00fc M\u00fcbarek, M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n Arap kom\u015fular\u0131yla bozulan aras\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fczeltmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131. 1982\u2019de \u0130srail, sava\u015f s\u0131ras\u0131nda ele ge\u00e7irdi\u011fi M\u0131s\u0131r topraklar\u0131n\u0131n sonuncusu ola Sina Yar\u0131madas\u0131ndaki b\u00f6lgeyi de M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a geri verdi.<\/p>\n
K\u00dcLT\u00dcR VE MEDEN\u0130YET<\/p>\n
MISIR TAKV\u0130M\u0130
\n Eski M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da belki de daha M\u00d6 IV. Binden itibaren kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 san\u0131lan meden\u00ee takvim, ilkel bir ay takvimiyle, Nil nehrinin kabarmas\u0131na (ve dolay\u0131s\u0131yla mevsimlere) g\u00f6re ayarlanm\u0131\u015f bir zira\u00ee takvimin kar\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131ndan ibarettir.
\nY\u0131l 365 g\u00fcne ayr\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131: 30\u2019ar g\u00fcn \u00e7eken 12 ay ve 5 tamamlay\u0131c\u0131 g\u00fcn (bunlara Yunanl\u0131lar epagomenes ad\u0131n\u0131 verdiler). Aylar her biri 4 ay s\u00fcren 3 mevsime ayr\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Akhet (\u201dta\u015fk\u0131n\u201d) Peret (\u201ctopra\u011f\u0131n sudan \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131\u201d=k\u0131\u015f) ve \u015eemu (\u201ckurakl\u0131k\u201d=yaz). Aylar \u00f6zel bir adla de\u011fil, ait olduklar\u0131 mevsim i\u00e7indeki s\u0131ralar\u0131yla an\u0131l\u0131rd\u0131. (Akhet\u2019in 3. ay\u0131 gibi)
\n Nil\u2019in kabarmas\u0131 a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 yukar\u0131, g\u00f6ky\u00fcz\u00fcn\u00fcn en parlak y\u0131ld\u0131z\u0131 Sothis\u2019in (bug\u00fcnk\u00fc ad\u0131yla Sirius), uzun s\u00fcre kaybolduktan sonra, \u015fafakta g\u00f6ky\u00fcz\u00fcnde yeniden g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc g\u00fcne dek d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcyordu. Bu astronomik olay y\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131, Akhet\u2019in ilk ayn\u0131n birinci g\u00fcn\u00fc say\u0131l\u0131rd\u0131.
\n365 g\u00fcnl\u00fck m\u0131s\u0131r y\u0131l\u0131, d\u00f6nence y\u0131l\u0131na oranla yakla\u015f\u0131k 0,25 g\u00fcn eksikti. Bu y\u00fczden y\u0131lba\u015f\u0131 yava\u015f yava\u015f mevsimlerden sapmaktayd\u0131. Dengenin yeniden sa\u011flanmas\u0131 i\u00e7in aradan 1461 y\u0131l ge\u00e7mesi gerekti (bu s\u00fcreye Sothis d\u00f6nemi veya b\u00fcy\u00fck y\u0131l ad\u0131 verildi).
\n Yeni y\u0131l\u0131n mevsimlere oranla kaymas\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6nlemek i\u00e7in, M\u0131s\u0131r kral\u0131 III. Ptolemaios Euergetes, M\u00d6 238\u2019de, her d\u00f6rt y\u0131lda bir alt\u0131c\u0131 bir epagomenos g\u00fcn\u00fc eklenmesini kararla\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131. Ne var ki bu takvim reformu uygulanmad\u0131. Ancak iki y\u00fczy\u0131l sonra, M\u00d6 30\u2019da Roma imparatoru Augustus taraf\u0131ndan zorla uygulamaya kondu be o tarihten ba\u015flayarak M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da yeni y\u0131l 29 a\u011fustosta ba\u015flad\u0131.
\n M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar g\u00fcnlerini g\u00fcne\u015fin do\u011fusundan itibaren ba\u015flat\u0131r, eski ay\u0131n \u015fafakta kayboldu\u011fu an\u0131 yeni kamer ay\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131 sayarlard\u0131. G\u00fcn e\u015fit olmayan 24 saate b\u00f6l\u00fcn\u00fcr, g\u00fcnd\u00fcz ve gece ayr\u0131 ayr\u0131 12\u2019\u015fer saate ayr\u0131l\u0131rd\u0131.
\nM\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da y\u0131llar o s\u0131rada tahtta oturan firavunun saltanat\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131ndan itibaren say\u0131l\u0131rd\u0131. Her h\u00fck\u00fcmdar de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011finde y\u0131llar yeniden s\u0131f\u0131rdan ba\u015flard\u0131.<\/p>\n
Y\u00f6netim ve G\u00fcnl\u00fck Ya\u015fam
\n M\u0131s\u0131r’da ya\u015fam vezirden k\u00f6y muhtar\u0131na kadar herkesin olu\u015fturdu\u011fu karma\u015f\u0131k bir y\u00f6netim a\u011f\u0131yla sar\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Vergiler mal olarak toplanmaktayd\u0131, tar\u0131mla ilgili \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar kesin kurallara ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131, adli mekanizma i\u015flemekte ve b\u00fcy\u00fck i\u015fler \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 bir kesinlikle yerine getirilmekteydi: 2 milyon ta\u015f blo\u011fundan olu\u015fan bir piramidi dikmek i\u00e7in, kurakl\u0131k mevsiminde toplanan,binlercesi seferber edilen, beslenip y\u00f6netilen her i\u015fe ko\u015fulmaya elveri\u015fli k\u00f6yl\u00fcler kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.
\n Kat\u0131 prenslerin y\u00f6netiminde erkenden olu\u015fan siyasi ve idari yap\u0131lar\u0131n k\u00f6keninde disiplin ve \u00f6rg\u00fctlenme yatmaktayd\u0131. Yerel h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar\u0131n giri\u015fimiyle yava\u015f yava\u015f birle\u015fip nomos diye adland\u0131r\u0131lan k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck krall\u0131klardaki ilk M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar, 4. Bin y\u0131lda iki \u00f6nemli siyasi birli\u011fe tan\u0131k oldular.
\n M\u0131s\u0131r uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131, ancak sert hiyerar\u015fik kurallara ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015f ve bir merkezde toplanm\u0131\u015f,b\u00fct\u00fcn zenginlikleri firavuna ve soylulara do\u011fru \u00e7ekilen bir toplum d\u00fczeni sayesinde varolabilmi\u015ftir. Fazlas\u0131yla kat\u0131 ve geli\u015fme yetene\u011finden yoksun olan bu sistem, sonunda \u00fclkeyi u\u00e7uruma s\u00fcr\u00fckledi. M\u00d6 9.yy dan itibaren b\u00fcy\u00fck derebeylerin kavgalar\u0131yla b\u00f6l\u00fcn\u00fcp zay\u0131f d\u00fc\u015fen M\u0131s\u0131r, kom\u015fu devletler i\u00e7in kolay bir av haline geldi. S\u0131ras\u0131yla Asurlular\u0131n, Perslerin,Yunanl\u0131lar\u0131n ve Romal\u0131lar\u0131n otoritesi alt\u0131na girdi. MS 7.yy dan itibaren Araplara ge\u00e7ti.<\/p>\n
Dil ve Yaz\u0131
\n M\u0131s\u0131r halk\u0131 \u0131rk\u0131n\u0131n fiziksel \u00f6zellikleri haricinde diliyle de \u00f6zg\u00fcnd\u00fcr. Uzmanlar, uzun s\u00fcre aralar\u0131nda bu dilin Sami k\u00f6kenli yada Afrika k\u00f6kenli oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015flerdir.
\n Bug\u00fcn, genelde M\u0131s\u0131r dilinin, sudan dilinin, Berberi dilinin, Sami dillerinin eski ortak bir dilden t\u00fcremi\u015f birbirinden ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z dil gruplar\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturdu\u011fu kabul edilmi\u015ftir.
\n M\u0131s\u0131r dili \u0130.\u00d6. 3100\u2019lerden itibaren kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olan, bilinen en eski yaz\u0131lardan birinin sayesinde g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze ula\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu yaz\u0131n\u0131n en \u00f6nemli \u00f6zelli\u011fi tamam\u0131yla yerel olmas\u0131d\u0131r. Yaz\u0131 bize \u00fc\u00e7 ayr\u0131 bi\u00e7imde ula\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r ki bunlardan hiyeroglif denileni \u00f6zellikle an\u0131tlarda kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, olduk\u00e7a resimsel bir tarzda i\u015flenmi\u015ftir. Bu yaz\u0131n\u0131n, fig\u00fcr\u00fc basite indirgense bile, \u00e7ok uzun s\u00fcrede \u00e7izildi\u011fi tahmin edilmektedir, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc tek bir kelime be\u015f veya alt\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fik i\u015faretle belirtilmekteydi. M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n en verimli \u00e7a\u011f\u0131ndan itibaren kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olan, hi\u00e9ratique ad\u0131 verilen bir di\u011fer i\u015flek yaz\u0131 bi\u00e7imi vard\u0131r. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze ula\u015fm\u0131\u015f olan edebi, hukuka ve y\u00f6netime ait belgelerin bir \u00e7o\u011fu bu yaz\u0131yla yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. En son olarak \u00e7\u00f6k\u00fc\u015f d\u00f6neminde bu sefer hi\u00e9ratique basite indirgenerek, d\u00e9motique ad\u0131 verilen yaz\u0131 \u015fekli do\u011fmu\u015ftur. Bu yaz\u0131 \u015feklinde i\u015faretler o kadar geli\u015fmi\u015ftir ki hiyeroglifin ilk \u00f6rneklerini tan\u0131mak dahi imkans\u0131zd\u0131r.
\n M\u0131s\u0131r yaz\u0131 sistemi asl\u0131nda olduk\u00e7a karma\u015f\u0131kt\u0131r. Maddi \u015feyler her zaman resimleriyle belirtilmi\u015ftir. \u00d6rne\u011fin; k\u00fcrek, yay, saban kelimelerini yazman i\u00e7in sadece k\u00fcrek, yay, saban \u00e7izmek yeterlidir. Buna piktografi denir. M\u0131s\u0131r yaz\u0131s\u0131 her \u00e7a\u011fda bundan faydalanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ancak piktografi her \u015feyi anlatmaya yetmez. \u00d6rne\u011fin; ko\u015fmak, aramak, \u00e7\u0131kmak gibi eylemler veya d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmek, a\u015fk gibi soyut kelimeler nas\u0131l tasvir edilebilir. Bu sorunu \u00e7\u00f6zmek i\u00e7in m\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar bulmaca prensibinden yola \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131lar. Ve soyut kelimeleri benzer son sese sahip nesnelerle ifade edebilecekleri bir \u00e7ok \u00f6\u011feye ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131lar.<\/p>\n
Bilim
\n M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da, katipler ve yazmay\u0131 bilen herkes, bu bilgilerinden \u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fc sayg\u0131n kabul edilirdi. Bir bak\u0131ma M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar daha sonra Yunanl\u0131larda oldu\u011fu gibi soyut d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce \u00fcretememi\u015fti. Onlar uygulama ve deneyime yatk\u0131n ki\u015filerdi. Bilimsel ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131 deneylere dayanarak ke\u015ffedilen, gizleri a\u00e7\u0131layan genel matematik kurallar\u0131 geli\u015ftirmekten \u00e7ok, yeniden kullanmaya elveri\u015fli emin ve denenmi\u015f \u00e7areler bulmaktan ibaretti. Demek ki M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar dev an\u0131tlar\u0131na bak\u0131larak kendilerine yak\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lan yayg\u0131n ve kesin bilgilerine ra\u011fmen, bilim adam\u0131ndan \u00e7ok teknisyendi. Ger\u00e7ekte mimarlar rastlant\u0131lara g\u00f6re in\u015faat boyunca planlar\u0131n\u0131 s\u0131k s\u0131k de\u011fi\u015ftirirdi.
\nT\u0131p:
\n Papir\u00fcslerdeki t\u0131p metinlerinden \u00f6\u011frendiklerimize g\u00f6re doktorlar hastal\u0131\u011f\u0131n sebeplerini aramaktan \u00e7ok, denenmi\u015f y\u00f6ntemler uyguluyordu. \u201cKellerin sa\u00e7\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7\u0131karmak i\u00e7in re\u00e7ete\u201d baz\u0131 y\u00f6ntemler \u015farlatanlar\u0131n ila\u00e7lar\u0131na benzerken veya b\u00fcy\u00fcden faydalan\u0131rken, \u00f6rne\u011fin \u00f6ks\u00fcr\u00fc\u011fe kar\u015f\u0131 bu\u011fu yap\u0131lmas\u0131 gibi baz\u0131 y\u00f6ntemler daha ciddiydi. \u201cTiam bitkisinin 1\/32\u2019si ince ince k\u0131y\u0131larak ate\u015fte kaynat\u0131l\u0131r. Buhar bir g\u00fcn boyunca bir kam\u0131\u015fla yutulur.\u201d Kemik cerrahisi \u00fczerine bu papir\u00fcs bilgileri ve m\u00fckemmel bir y\u00f6ntemi ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131r. Kal Coser\u2019in hizmetindeki bilgin \u0130mhotep \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnden as\u0131rlar sonra t\u0131p tanr\u0131s\u0131 olarak ululand\u0131.
\nA\u011f\u0131rl\u0131k \u00d6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fc: Uzun s\u00fcre \u201cdeben\u201d ad\u0131 verilen 90 gr a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndaki \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fc kullan\u0131ld\u0131. Bu \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcden kefeli teraziyle yap\u0131lan tart\u0131larda faydalan\u0131l\u0131yordu.
\nZaman \u00d6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fc: Klepsydre veya Su saati g\u00fcne\u015f batarken suyla doldurulurdu. \u00c7ana\u011f\u0131n alt\u0131n yerle\u015ftirilen k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir delik sayesinde su yava\u015f\u00e7a d\u00f6k\u00fcl\u00fcrd\u00fc.su seviyesi \u00e7ana\u011f\u0131n i\u00e7indeki ilk i\u015farete geldi\u011finde gecenin ikinci saati ba\u015flam\u0131\u015f olurdu. 12 derece i\u015faret aylara e\u015fitsizlik g\u00f6steren gecelerin uzunlu\u011funa denk d\u00fc\u015ferdi. Gnomon g\u00fcn boyunca saati g\u00f6sterirdi. Basit bir \u00e7ubu\u011fun g\u00f6lgesi derecelendirilmi\u015f bir d\u00fczlem \u00fczerinde ilerlerdi. Aleti d\u00fcz bir sat\u0131 \u00fczerine yerle\u015ftirmek yeterliydi. <\/p>\n
\u0130nan\u0131\u015f
\n Kral, bu d\u00fcnyadan ayr\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 zaman yanlar\u0131ndan geldi\u011fi tanr\u0131lar\u0131n aras\u0131na y\u00fckselecekti. O g\u00f6ky\u00fcz\u00fcne \u00e7\u0131karken piramitler olas\u0131l\u0131kla onun \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 kolayla\u015ft\u0131racaklard\u0131. Ama her \u015feyden \u00f6nce onun kutsal bedeninin korunmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flayacaklard\u0131. M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar ruhun \u00f6te d\u00fcnyada ya\u015fam\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrebilmesi i\u00e7in bedenin korunmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fine inan\u0131yorlard\u0131. Bu y\u00fczden kar\u0131\u015f\u0131k bir mumyalama y\u00f6ntemiyle ve bedenini sarg\u0131lara sararak, cesedin bozulmas\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6nl\u00fcyorlard\u0131. Piramit kral\u0131n mumyas\u0131 i\u00e7in dikiliyor, ceset ise bu koskoca ta\u015f da\u011f\u0131n\u0131n tam ortas\u0131na yine ta\u015ftan bir mezar i\u00e7ine yerle\u015ftiriliyordu. \u00d6l\u00fc odas\u0131n\u0131n duvarlar\u0131na, t\u00fcm \u00e7evreye d\u00fcnya \u00f6tesi yolculu\u011funda krala yard\u0131mc\u0131 olaca\u011f\u0131na inan\u0131lan b\u00fcy\u00fcs\u00fcler i\u015faretler \u00e7iziliyordu.
\n Heykelciler taraf\u0131ndan granite oyulan kral portreleri ruh o imgede ve imge sayesinde ya\u015fam\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrs\u00fcn diye, mezara kimsenin g\u00f6remeyece\u011fi bir yere koyulurdu.<\/p>\n
Sanat Tarihi
\n Herkes M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n tarihin uzak ufkunda kilometre ta\u015flar\u0131 gibi dikili duran, zaman\u0131n h\u0131\u015fm\u0131na u\u011fram\u0131\u015f ta\u015ftan da\u011flar\u0131n, yani piramitlerin \u00fclkesi oldu\u011funu bilir. Ne kadar uzak ve gizemli g\u00f6r\u00fcnseler de \u00e7ok \u015fey s\u00f6yler bize piramitler. Onlar bize bir kral\u0131n ya\u015fam s\u00fcresi i\u00e7ersinde ta\u015ftan o dev k\u00fctlelerin dikilmesini m\u00fcmk\u00fcn k\u0131labilecek yetkinlikte \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmi\u015f bir \u00fclkeden binlerce i\u015f\u00e7i ve tutsa\u011f\u0131 madenlerden \u00e7\u0131karmak, onlar\u0131 in\u015faat alan\u0131na \u00e7ekmek ve kral mezar\u0131 tamamlan\u0131ncaya kadar, y\u0131llarca \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131p, bu ta\u015flar\u0131 en ilkel ara\u00e7larla bir bir dizdirebilecek kadar, zengin ve g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc krallardan s\u00f6z ediyorlar.
\n Sanat tarihinde eski inan\u0131\u015flar\u0131n rol\u00fc konusunda bize bir \u015feyler s\u00f6yleyen yaln\u0131zca insan mimarisinin bu \u00e7ok eski kal\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131 olan piramitler de\u011fildi. M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar i\u00e7in bedenin korunmas\u0131 yeterli de\u011fildi. Kral\u0131n\u0131n d\u0131\u015f g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fc de yok olmazsa sonsuza dek ya\u015famas\u0131 kesinlik kazan\u0131yordu. Bunun i\u00e7in heykelcilerden a\u015f\u0131nmaz ve \u00e7etin bir granite kral\u0131n portresini oymalar\u0131 isteniyordu. Heykelci s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fc \u201cya\u015fam\u0131 koruyan ki\u015fi\u201d ile e\u015f anlama geliyordu.
\n Piramitler \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n\u0131n, yani eski krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n d\u00f6rd\u00fcnc\u00fc s\u00fclalesinin ilk portrelerinden baz\u0131lar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r Sanat\u0131n\u0131n en \u00fcst\u00fcn yap\u0131tlar\u0131ndan say\u0131l\u0131r. Bunlar da kolay kolay unutulamayan bir g\u00f6rkemlilikle yal\u0131nl\u0131k bir ardada bulunur.
\n Geometrik d\u00fczenlilikle, keskin do\u011fa g\u00f6zlemin kayna\u015f\u0131m\u0131 t\u00fcn M\u0131s\u0131r sanat\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6zelli\u011fidir. Bu \u00f6zelli\u011fi en iyi \u015fekilde mezarlar\u0131n\u0131n duvarlar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcsleyen kabartmalarda ve resimlerde izleyebiliriz.
\n M\u0131s\u0131r resimlerin her ba\u011flant\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 birbirine ba\u011flayan d\u00fczen o denli g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc ki, en ufak bir de\u011fi\u015fiklik t\u00fcm birli\u011fi alt \u00fcst etmeye yetiyor. M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 sanat\u00e7\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131na davar\u0131 d\u00fcz \u00e7izgilerle b\u00f6lerek ba\u015fl\u0131yor. Daha sonra fig\u00fcrlerini bu \u00e7izgilere g\u00f6re yerle\u015ftiriyordu. Ama geometrik d\u00fczen duygusu onun do\u011fan\u0131n ayr\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 \u015fa\u015f\u0131las\u0131 bir do\u011frulukla g\u00f6zlemlemesini engellemiyordu. Her bir ku\u015f ve ya bal\u0131k \u00f6ylesine bir ger\u00e7eklikle \u00e7izilmi\u015ftir ki, hayvan bilimciler bug\u00fcn de o ku\u015fun veya bal\u0131\u011f\u0131n t\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc hemen saptayabiliriler.
\n M\u0131s\u0131r sanat\u0131n\u0131n en \u00f6nemli \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fcklerinden birisi her heykelin resmin veya mimari bi\u00e7imin sanki tek bir yasaya uygun olarak mekanda yer almas\u0131d\u0131r. Bir halk\u0131n t\u00fcm yarat\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n uydu\u011fu g\u00f6r\u00fclen bu yasaya \u201c\u00fcslup\u201d denilir. Bu \u00fcslubu neyin olu\u015fturdu\u011funu s\u00f6zc\u00fcklerle anlatmak zor bir i\u015f ama onu g\u00f6zle bulgulamak daha zor. T\u00fcm M\u0131s\u0131r sanat\u0131n\u0131 y\u00f6neten bu kurallar her yap\u0131da denge ve a\u011f\u0131rba\u015fl\u0131 bir uyum katmaktad\u0131r. <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
M\u0131s\u0131r Tarihi \u0130.\u00d6. 3100 civar\u0131nda beraberinde insana \u00f6zg\u00fc uzun deneyimler sahibi olan M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n yaz\u0131l\u0131 tarihi ba\u015flar. Tar\u0131ma ait topraklar\u0131 kesin olarak belirlenmi\u015f, dininin belli ba\u015fl\u0131 unsurlar\u0131 olu\u015fturulmu\u015f, dili ve yaz\u0131s\u0131 saptanm\u0131\u015f, \u00f6nemli kurumlar\u0131 yerlerini alm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Yeni Krall\u0131k d\u00f6neminde (\u0130.\u00d6. 1500) M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar bronzun varl\u0131\u011f\u0131na ra\u011fmen \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131n\u0131 \u015fekillendirmeyi biliyorlar ve zorunluymu\u015f gibi ta\u015ftan yontulmu\u015f ve cilalanm\u0131\u015f ayn\u0131 …<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1403,1406],"tags":[1678,1677,1679],"class_list":["post-475","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-odevler","category-sosyal-bilgiler-odevleri","tag-egyptologie","tag-misir-tarihi","tag-paleolitik-donem"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/475","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=475"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/475\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=475"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=475"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=475"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}