MERCEKLER VE AYNALAR<\/p>\n
Ayna, insan\u0131n kendisini g\u00f6rmesi i\u00e7in kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 cam veya maden levhad\u0131r. Mercek ise i\u00e7inden ge\u00e7en paralel \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131 birbirine yakla\u015ft\u0131ran ya da uzakla\u015ft\u0131ran saydam bir cisimdir. \u0130nsan g\u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fcn g\u00f6rmesini g\u00f6z merce\u011fi sa\u011flar. G\u00f6rme bozuklu\u011funu gidermek i\u00e7in merceklerden olu\u015fan g\u00f6zl\u00fck tak\u0131l\u0131r. Foto\u011fraf makinesi ve b\u00fcy\u00fcte\u00e7 de, mercekle \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan ara\u00e7lard\u0131r. Mikrokskop, teleskop ve di\u011fer bir\u00e7ok \u00f6l\u00e7me ara\u00e7lar\u0131nda mercekler ve aynalar bulunmaktad\u0131r.
\n Bir aynan\u0131n \u00f6n\u00fcnde durup bakarsan\u0131z, y\u00fcz\u00fcn\u00fcz\u00fc g\u00f6rebilirsiniz. Aynan\u0131n durumunu de\u011fi\u015ftirince, ba\u015fka cisimleri de g\u00f6rebilirsiniz. Aynada, \u00f6n\u00fcndeki cismin bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc olu\u015fur.
\n Mercek ve aynalar, g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc eldesi i\u00e7in kullan\u0131l\u0131rlar. Normal bir d\u00fcz aynada, \u00f6ndeki cismin g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc, cisimle ayn\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fckte ve do\u011frultudad\u0131r; fakat sa\u011f\u0131 ve solu yer de\u011fi\u015ftirmi\u015ftir. Sol el, g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn sa\u011f taraf\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr. Aynalar ve merceklerle daha b\u00fcy\u00fck yada daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcler de elde edilebilir.
\n Mercek, bir ya da iki y\u00fcz\u00fc \u00e7ukur veya t\u00fcmsek olan, cam veya plastikten yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir ara\u00e7t\u0131r. Saydamd\u0131r, yani \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131 ge\u00e7irir. Fakat i\u00e7inden ge\u00e7en \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n gidi\u015fini sapt\u0131r\u0131r. Bu sapmaya \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n k\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 denir.
\n Ayna ise \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n ge\u00e7emedi\u011fi, parlak bir cisimdir. Y\u00fczleri d\u00fcz veya e\u011fri olabilir. Cam\u0131n bir taraf\u0131n\u0131 g\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f veya ba\u015fka metalle kaplayarak yap\u0131l\u0131r. Ayna, \u00fczerine gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131, geldi\u011fi tarafa geri g\u00f6nderir. Bu olaya da \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n yans\u0131mas\u0131 denir.
\n Mercekler ve aynalarla ilgili \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalara geometrik optik denir. Optik, \u0131\u015f\u0131k bilgisi demektir. Geometri ise, \u015fekiller ve do\u011frultular\u0131 inceleyen bilimdir.farkl\u0131 \u015fekilli mercekler ve aynalar, \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n gidi\u015fini \u00e7e\u015fitli \u015fekillerde de\u011fi\u015ftirirler. Bunlar geometrik optik kurallar\u0131yla belirlenmi\u015ftir.
\nI\u015f\u0131k, bir enerji t\u00fcr\u00fcd\u00fcr. Kitab\u0131n sayfas\u0131ndan g\u00f6ze gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131k, g\u00f6ze enerji ta\u015f\u0131maktad\u0131r. Fakat ayna ve merceklerin \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klamak i\u00e7in \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n ne oldu\u011funu a\u00e7\u0131klamaya gerek yoktur. I\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n ne oldu\u011fu \u00f6\u011frenilmeden \u00e7ok \u00f6nce \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n hareket \u015fekli incelenmi\u015f ve anla\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.
\n I\u015f\u0131k, cam, su ve hava gibi maddelerden ge\u00e7ebilir. Bu maddelere ortam denir. Bo\u015fluk da bir ortamd\u0131r ve \u0131\u015f\u0131k ondan da ge\u00e7ebilir. I\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n hareketi, \u0131\u015f\u0131nlardan yola \u00e7\u0131k\u0131larak daha kolay incelenebilir. I\u015f\u0131k \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131, \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n \u00e7ok ince bir par\u00e7as\u0131d\u0131r.
\n Bir ortamda yol alan bir \u0131\u015f\u0131n do\u011frusal olarak gider. Fakat ba\u015fka bir ortama ge\u00e7ince, do\u011frultusu de\u011fi\u015fir. Bir ayna veya merce\u011fe \u00e7arp\u0131nca da ayn\u0131 \u015fey olur. Bunlara gelirken ve \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131ktan sonra \u0131\u015f\u0131k do\u011frusal yay\u0131l\u0131r. Fakat i\u00e7inde, k\u0131r\u0131lmalar nedeniyle sapmalar olur.
\n D\u00fcz bir \u00e7izgi \u00e7izin. Bunu bir aynan\u0131n d\u00fcz y\u00fcz\u00fc varsay\u0131n. Sonra bu y\u00fczeye gelen, do\u011frusal bir \u0131\u015f\u0131n \u00e7izin. Bu \u0131\u015f\u0131n, aynaya herhangi bir noktada \u00e7arps\u0131n. Ayn\u0131 noktaya gelen, fakat aynaya dik bir \u0131\u015f\u0131n daha \u00e7izin. Buna dik \u00e7izgi veya normal denir.
\n\u00d6nce \u00e7izilen herhangi \u0131\u015f\u0131n, normalle bir a\u00e7\u0131 yapar ve bu a\u00e7\u0131ya gelme a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 ad\u0131 verilir. Yans\u0131yan \u0131\u015f\u0131n da, normalle bir a\u00e7\u0131 yapar. Buna yans\u0131ma a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 denir.
\nYans\u0131ma yasas\u0131na g\u00f6re, gelme a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131yla yans\u0131ma a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 birbirine e\u015fittir. B\u00f6ylece, yans\u0131yan \u0131\u015f\u0131n, gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n normalle yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131n\u0131n ayn\u0131n\u0131 yapacak \u015fekilde, normalin di\u011fer taraf\u0131na \u00e7izilebilir. Gelme a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 s\u0131f\u0131r derece ise, gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131nla yans\u0131yan \u0131\u015f\u0131n \u00fcst\u00fcste \u00e7ak\u0131\u015f\u0131r.
\nGelme a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 doksan dereceye yak\u0131nsa, yans\u0131yan \u0131\u015f\u0131n da ayna y\u00fcz\u00fcne de\u011ferek gider.
\nBu olay, bir bilardo topunun masan\u0131n kenar\u0131na \u00e7arp\u0131p, ayn\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131yla di\u011fer tarafa gitmesine benzer.
\nAynan\u0131n \u00f6n\u00fcne bir cisim koydu\u011fumuzu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnelim. Cismin her noktas\u0131ndan ge\u00e7erek gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar aynaya \u00e7arpar.
\nHer \u0131\u015f\u0131n, yans\u0131ma kural\u0131na uyar. Yans\u0131yan \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar, normalin di\u011fer taraf\u0131na do\u011fru yol al\u0131rlar. Aynan\u0131n arkas\u0131ndaki bir noktadan \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yormu\u015f gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr. Cisim oradaym\u0131\u015f gibi olur. Bu \u015fekilde, aynan\u0131n arkas\u0131nda olu\u015fan g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcye ger\u00e7ek olmayan g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc denir.
\nD\u00fcz aynada,cisimle g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc ayn\u0131 boydad\u0131r. Ayna arkas\u0131ndaki g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn ve \u00f6ndeki cismin, aynaya uzakl\u0131klar\u0131 e\u015fittir.
\nB\u00fct\u00fcn cisimler, \u00fczerlerine gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n bir k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131 yans\u0131t\u0131rlar. B\u00f6yle olmasayd\u0131, onlar\u0131 g\u00f6remezdik. Fakat neden her cisimde aynadaki gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcler g\u00f6rmeyiz? Ayna y\u00fczeyinin \u00f6zelli\u011fi nedir?
\nAynalarda g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc olu\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131n nedeni arka y\u00fczlerinin \u00e7ok parlak olmas\u0131d\u0131r. Y\u00fczey p\u00fcr\u00fczl\u00fc olursa, yans\u0131yan \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar bir\u00e7ok do\u011frultulara da\u011f\u0131l\u0131r, bu y\u00fczden bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc olu\u015famaz.
\nD\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey (konveks) aynadaki g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc de, d\u00fcz aynadakine benzer. Y\u00fczeyi d\u00fcz de\u011fildir ve d\u0131\u015fa do\u011fru \u00e7\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r.bir topun y\u00fczeyi veya fincan\u0131n d\u0131\u015f taraf\u0131 da d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckeydir. D\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey aynan\u0131n y\u00fczeyi k\u00fcreseldir ve k\u00fcrenin bir k\u0131sm\u0131 \u015feklindedir. B\u00fcy\u00fck ma\u011fazalardaki ve otomobillerdeki aynalar genellikle d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckeydir. D\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey aynada cismin g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc, cisimden daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fckt\u00fcr. Ayr\u0131ca g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn bi\u00e7imi de bozulmu\u015ftur.
\nD\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey aynalarda yaln\u0131z g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc de\u011fi\u015fmez. G\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn aynaya uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131, cismin aynaya uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan daha azd\u0131r. Otomobillerdeki geriyi g\u00f6rme aynalar\u0131nda arkadan gelen otomobiller daha yak\u0131nda gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Ger\u00e7ek uzakl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 anlamak i\u00e7in d\u00f6n\u00fcp bakmak gerekir.
\nD\u0131\u015f\u015fb\u00fckey aynan\u0131n k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir y\u00fczeyini d\u00fczlem ayna gibi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnebiliriz. Ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde, yery\u00fcz\u00fcndeki k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir y\u00fczeyi de d\u00fcz olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcr\u00fcz. B\u00f6ylece, her \u0131\u015f\u0131n, d\u00fcz y\u00fczeyden yans\u0131yor gibi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclebilir.
\nD\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey aynan\u0131n merkezinden ve tepesinden ge\u00e7en normal do\u011fruya aynan\u0131n ekseni denir. Eksen \u00fczerindeki cisimlerin g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc yine eksen \u00fczerinde olu\u015fur.
\n\u00c7orba ka\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n arkas\u0131da d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey aynad\u0131r. Ka\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n i\u00e7 \u00e7ukur taraf\u0131 ise, i\u00e7b\u00fckey (konkav) bir y\u00fczeydir. D\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey aynalar, k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc verdikleri halde, i\u00e7b\u00fckey aynalardaki g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc, cisim taraf\u0131ndad\u0131r ve cisimden daha b\u00fcy\u00fckt\u00fcr. Tra\u015f aynalar\u0131 i\u00e7 b\u00fckey ayna \u015feklindedir.
\nE\u011flence parklar\u0131ndaki g\u00fcld\u00fcren aynalar\u0131n y\u00fczeyleri dalgal\u0131d\u0131r. Baz\u0131 k\u0131s\u0131mlar\u0131 d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey, baz\u0131 k\u0131s\u0131mlar\u0131 ise i\u00e7b\u00fckey aynad\u0131r. Bu y\u00fczden, bak\u0131nca, baz\u0131 k\u0131s\u0131mlar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck, baz\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 ise k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck g\u00f6r\u00fcr\u00fcz.
\nCisim uzakta ise, i\u00e7b\u00fckey aynalarda de\u011fi\u015fik bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc olu\u015fur.bir tra\u015f aynas\u0131ndan yeteri kadar uzakta durursan\u0131z kendinizi daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck g\u00f6r\u00fcrs\u00fcn\u00fcz. Ayn\u0131 zamanda g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc ba\u015f a\u015fa\u011f\u0131d\u0131r ve aynan\u0131n arkas\u0131nda de\u011fil, \u00f6n\u00fcndedir.
\nBu \u00e7e\u015fit g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcye ger\u00e7ek g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc denir. G\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn bulundu\u011fu yerden ger\u00e7ek \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar ge\u00e7er. \u0130\u00e7b\u00fckey aynalar\u0131n \u00e7ok yak\u0131n\u0131ndaki cisimlerin g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc ise, d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey aynalardaki gibi ger\u00e7ek olmayan g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcd\u00fcr.
\n\u00c7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck astronomi teleskoplar\u0131nda yans\u0131t\u0131c\u0131 (reflekt\u00f6r) denilen i\u00e7b\u00fckey aynalar vard\u0131r. Kalifornia\u2019daki Palomar da\u011f\u0131ndaki yans\u0131t\u0131c\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7ap\u0131 508 santimetredir. Y\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclerini elde etmekte kullan\u0131l\u0131r. Y\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclerinin resmi de \u00e7ekilebilir.
\nAynalardan ba\u015fka, merceklerle de g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc elde edilebilir. Mercekler cam disklerden kesilir ve sonra y\u00fczeyleri parlat\u0131l\u0131r. I\u015f\u0131k, mercekten ge\u00e7ince, do\u011frultusu de\u011fi\u015fir. Bu olay\u0131 anlamak i\u00e7in, \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n su ve camda nas\u0131l yol ald\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 bilmek gerekir. Bir ortamdan di\u011ferine ge\u00e7erken \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n do\u011frultusu de\u011fi\u015fir. Buna k\u0131r\u0131lma denir.<\/p>\n
Hava ve cam gibi, farkl\u0131 iki ortam\u0131n s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131n\u0131 belirtmek amac\u0131yla d\u00fcz bir \u00e7izgi \u00e7izin.
\nSonra havadan bir \u0131\u015f\u0131n geldi\u011fini g\u00f6sterin. Cama \u00e7arpt\u0131\u011f\u0131 yerdeki y\u00fczeyin normalini \u00e7izin. I\u015f\u0131k, cam i\u00e7inde yolunu de\u011fi\u015ftirecek ve k\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f \u0131\u015f\u0131k olacakt\u0131r. K\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n, normalle yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131ya k\u0131r\u0131lma a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 ad\u0131 verilir. Bu a\u00e7\u0131, normalin di\u011fer taraf\u0131ndad\u0131r.
\nK\u0131r\u0131lma kural\u0131na g\u00f6re k\u0131r\u0131lma a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131, gelme a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fckt\u00fcr. Yani, \u0131\u015f\u0131k, norrmale do\u011fru yakla\u015f\u0131r. E\u011fer a\u00e7\u0131, y\u00fczeye te\u011fet olarak gelirse, yani dik a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131 ise d\u00fcz olarak yoluna devam devam eder.
\n\u015eimdi de camdan gelen herhangi bir \u0131\u015f\u0131n \u00e7izin. Bu \u0131\u015f\u0131n k\u0131r\u0131lacak ve havaya \u00e7\u0131kacakt\u0131r. Havadaki k\u0131r\u0131lma a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131, camdakinden farkl\u0131d\u0131r. K\u0131r\u0131lma kural\u0131na g\u00f6re, k\u0131r\u0131lma a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131, gelme a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan daha b\u00fcy\u00fckt\u00fcr. I\u015f\u0131k, normalden uzakla\u015f\u0131r \u015fekilde yol al\u0131r.
\nBu iki durum birbirinin benzeridir. Havadaki a\u00e7\u0131, camdaki a\u00e7\u0131dan her zaman daha b\u00fcy\u00fckt\u00fcr. Cam, havadan daha yo\u011fun bir maddedir. Yo\u011fun olan ortamda, a\u00e7\u0131 daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fckt\u00fcr. Bu durum di\u011fer ortamlar i\u00e7inde b\u00f6yledir. I\u015f\u0131k, hava ile su aras\u0131nda k\u0131r\u0131l\u0131yorsa, sudaki a\u00e7\u0131 daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fckt\u00fcr, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc su, havadan daha yo\u011fundur.
\nI\u015f\u0131k, havadan, daha yo\u011fun bir ortama ge\u00e7erse, o ortam\u0131n yo\u011funlu\u011funa ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak k\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r. Ortam\u0131n yo\u011funlu\u011fu fazlaysa, k\u0131r\u0131lma a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck olur; yani \u0131\u015f\u0131k daha fazla b\u00fck\u00fcl\u00fcr. Bu b\u00fck\u00fclme miktar\u0131, k\u0131r\u0131lma indisi denilen bir say\u0131yla g\u00f6sterilir. Yo\u011funlu\u011fu fazla olan ortam\u0131n k\u0131r\u0131lma indisi de b\u00fcy\u00fckt\u00fcr.
\nAynalarda oldu\u011fu gibi, mercekler de \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n do\u011frultusunu de\u011fi\u015ftirmek i\u00e7in kullan\u0131l\u0131r. Bir cisimden gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar, mercekten ge\u00e7tikten sonra, ba\u015fka bir noktada kesi\u015firler ve sanki oradan \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yor gibi olurlar.<\/p>\n
Yeni noktada bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc olu\u015fur. B\u00fcy\u00fcte\u00e7ler, iki taraf\u0131 da d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey olan merceklerdir. Bunlar\u0131 kullanarak, G\u00fcne\u015f \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131 bir noktada toplayabilirsiniz. B\u00f6ylece G\u00fcne\u015fin bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc elde edebilirsiniz. Ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde pencerenin g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc de g\u00f6r\u00fclebilir.
\nBir b\u00fcy\u00fcte\u00e7le, kolunuzu uzat\u0131p tutarak cisimlere bak\u0131n. Cisimlerden gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar, mercekle g\u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fcz aras\u0131nda bir bir yerde birle\u015fir ve \u0131\u015f\u0131k bu noktadan yeniden g\u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fcze gelir. Cisimlerin ger\u00e7ek g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclerini g\u00f6r\u00fcrs\u00fcn\u00fcz. Fakat bu g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcler ba\u015fa\u015fa\u011f\u0131 durumdad\u0131r.
\nK\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck g\u00f6k d\u00fcrb\u00fcnleri, normal d\u00fcrb\u00fcnler ve bir \u00e7ok astronomi d\u00fcrb\u00fcn\u00fcnde, cisimlerin ger\u00e7ek g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclerini elde etmede d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey mercekler kullan\u0131l\u0131r. Bunlara ince kenarl\u0131 mercekler ad\u0131 verilir.
\nCisimler ince kenarl\u0131 merce\u011fe yakla\u015ft\u0131k\u00e7a, g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcleri, mercekten daha uzakta olu\u015fur. Fakat cisim, merce\u011fe \u00e7ok yak\u0131nsa, ger\u00e7ek bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc olu\u015fmaz. Cisimle ayn\u0131 tarafta, ger\u00e7ek olmayan bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc olu\u015fur. K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir b\u00f6ce\u011fe, b\u00fcyeteci yakla\u015ft\u0131rarak bak\u0131nca, b\u00f6ce\u011fin ger\u00e7ek olmayan bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr.
\nB\u00fcy\u00fcte\u00e7teki merce\u011fin iki y\u00fcz\u00fc de d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey de\u011fildir. Biri d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey di\u011feri d\u00fczd\u00fcr. Bu tip merce\u011fe d\u00fczlem-d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey mercek denir. Bir y\u00fcz\u00fc d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey di\u011feri \u00e7ukur da olabilir. Bunlar \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n daha az da\u011f\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flarlar.
\nOrtas\u0131, kenarlar\u0131ndan daha ince olan mercekler, b\u00fcy\u00fcte\u00e7 olarak kullan\u0131lamaz. Cisimlerin g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcleri ger\u00e7ek de\u011fildir ve cisimden daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fckt\u00fcr. Bunlarla ger\u00e7ek g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc elde edilemez. G\u00f6zl\u00fcklerdeki mercekler daha \u00e7ok bu t\u00fcrdendir.
\nBir cismin veya g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn foto\u011fraf\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7ekebilirsiniz. Foto\u011fraf makinesinin merce\u011fi iki taraf\u0131 d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey ince kenarl\u0131 mercektir. Film \u00fczerinde ger\u00e7ek g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc olu\u015fturur.<\/p>\n
\u0130nsan g\u00f6z\u00fcndeki mercek de ince kenarl\u0131d\u0131r. G\u00f6z\u00fcn a\u011ftabaka denilen arka k\u0131sm\u0131nda, ger\u00e7ek g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc olu\u015fturur. A\u011ftabakada renkli \u0131\u015f\u0131klar ve g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcler elektrik sinyallerine d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcr ve beyine gider.
\nYapay merceklerin \u015fekli de\u011fi\u015femedi\u011fi halde, g\u00f6z merce\u011fi, y\u00fczeylerini de\u011fi\u015ftirebilir. E\u011frili\u011fi \u00e7ok fazlala\u015f\u0131nca, yak\u0131ndaki cisimleri g\u00f6r\u00fcr. E\u011frili\u011fi az olunca, uzaktaki cisimleri g\u00f6r\u00fcr.
\nFota\u011fraf makinesinin merce\u011finin belirli bir \u015fekli vard\u0131r. Farkl\u0131 uzakl\u0131ktaki cisimlerin g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc, film \u00fczerine d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcrebilmek i\u00e7in, mercek hareket ettirilir.
\nMerceklerin ve aynalar\u0131n da yap\u0131m kusurlar\u0131 olabilir. Y\u00fczeylerinin e\u011frili\u011fi de\u011fi\u015fkense, bulan\u0131k g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclerin olu\u015fmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7arlar. Bir noktadan gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar, bir noktada birle\u015fmez, farkl\u0131 yerlerde birle\u015firler. Buna k\u00fcresel sapma ad\u0131 verilir. Bunu \u00f6nlemek i\u00e7in, merceklerin y\u00fczeyi tam k\u00fcresel yap\u0131lmaz.
\nRenk sapmas\u0131 nedeniyle de bulan\u0131k g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc olu\u015fabilir. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc merce\u011fin yap\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 cam, farkl\u0131 renkli \u0131\u015f\u0131klar\u0131, farkl\u0131 miktarlarda k\u0131rar. Bu y\u00fczden cisimlerin g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc bulan\u0131k olur. G\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc, renkli \u015feritler bi\u00e7iminde g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Bu sapma, birka\u00e7 merce\u011fi bir arada kullanarak d\u00fczeltilebilir. Kullan\u0131lan camlar\u0131n k\u0131r\u0131lma indisleri farkl\u0131 se\u00e7ilir.
\nMerce\u011fe gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n hepsi di\u011fer tarafa ge\u00e7mez. Bir k\u0131sm\u0131 da geri yans\u0131r. Bu durum pencere cam\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fclebilir. Bunlar, optik ara\u00e7larda istenmeyen yanl\u0131\u015f g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclere yol a\u00e7abilir. Bu yans\u0131may\u0131 azaltmak i\u00e7in mercekler, \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131 ge\u00e7iren, fakat yans\u0131tmayan \u00f6zel bir kimyasal maddeyle kaplan\u0131r.
\nI\u015f\u0131k, yo\u011fun bir ortamdan, az yo\u011fun ortama ge\u00e7erse, y\u00fczeyin normalinden uzakla\u015farak k\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r. Bu k\u0131r\u0131lma o kadar fazla olabilir ki , k\u0131r\u0131lan \u0131\u015f\u0131n, y\u00fczeye te\u011fet olur. Bu durum kritik a\u00e7\u0131 denilen belli bir geli\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131nda olur. Geli\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131, kritik a\u00e7\u0131dan daha b\u00fcy\u00fckse, k\u0131r\u0131lma olmaz. Gelen b\u00fct\u00fcn \u0131\u015f\u0131k, yeniden \u00e7ok yo\u011fun ortama yans\u0131r. Buna tam yans\u0131ma ad\u0131 verilir.
\nMercek: Optik g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcler olu\u015fturmak i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lan, genellikle k\u00fcresel y\u00fczeylerle s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131, camdan ya da \u0131\u015f\u0131k k\u0131r\u0131c\u0131 bir maddeden yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f hacim.
\nDalga ve titr: Ses\u00f6tesi mercek, ses\u00f6tesi titre\u015fimlerin h\u0131z\u0131n\u0131n, ses\u00f6tesi inceleme ortam\u0131ndakinden (su, insan v\u00fccudu) \u00e7ok farkl\u0131 oldu\u011fu bir gere\u00e7 i\u00e7inde (pleksiglas, kau\u00e7uk) ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilen ve bu nedenle, ses\u00f6tesi titre\u015fimler i\u00e7in optik merceklerin \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011fa g\u00f6sterdi\u011fine benzer \u00f6zellikler g\u00f6steren d\u00fczenek. (Ses\u00f6tesi mercekler, akustik mikroskopta kullan\u0131l\u0131r.)
\nElektron: Elektron merce\u011fi, kondansat\u00f6rlerden (elektrostatik mercek), bobin ya da elekrom\u0131knat\u0131slardan (elektromanyetik mercek) olu\u015fan ve optik merceklerin \u0131\u015f\u0131k demetlerini sapt\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi, y\u00fckl\u00fc par\u00e7ac\u0131k demetlerini de sapt\u0131ran eksenel bak\u0131\u015f\u0131ml\u0131 d\u00fczenek. (Elektron ak\u0131mlar\u0131n\u0131 yak\u0131nsatmaya olanak veren elektron mercekleri bir\u00e7ok ayg\u0131tta, \u00f6zellikle elektron mikroskoplar\u0131nda kullan\u0131l\u0131r.)
\nMad: Kenarlara do\u011fru incelen, nispeten az kal\u0131nl\u0131kta mineral y\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131.
\nOftalmol: Yapay g\u00f6zmerce\u011fi genellikle katarakt nedeniyle \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan g\u00f6zmerce\u011finin yerine tak\u0131lan implant.(Afaki durumunda g\u00f6zl\u00fckle yap\u0131lan d\u00fczeltmeye g\u00f6re \u00e7ok daha iyi oldu\u011fundan b\u00fcy\u00fck bir geli\u015fme g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir:g\u00f6rme alan\u0131n\u0131 tam g\u00f6r\u00fcr ve g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclerin boyutlar\u0131n\u0131 da b\u00fcy\u00fctmez.)
\nOpt: Basamakl\u0131 mercek ya da Fresnel merce\u011fi merkezi bir mercek ile k\u0131r\u0131c\u0131 ya da yans\u0131t\u0131c\u0131 \u00e7e\u015fitli halkalardan olu\u015fan ve ko\u015fut \u0131\u015f\u0131kl\u0131 geni\u015f bir demet elde etmek i\u00e7in deniz fenerlerinde kullan\u0131lan optik sistem.
\nRadyotekn: Radyoelektriksel mercek, bir radyoelektrik dalgas\u0131n\u0131n yay\u0131lmas\u0131nda, faz gecikmeleri olu\u015fturmaya yarayan ve b\u00f6ylece yak\u0131nsama ya da \u0131raksama etkileri yaratan d\u00fczenek; faz gecikmelerinin de\u011feri gelme a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131na ya da d\u00fczenekten ge\u00e7en \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n konumuna ba\u011fl\u0131d\u0131r.
\nAnsikl. Opt: Bir mercek, genellikle k\u00fcresel olan iki y\u00fczeyle (diyoptrlar) s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131, k\u0131r\u0131c\u0131 ve saydam bir ortamdan olu\u015fur. Do\u011furucular\u0131 ko\u015fut olan iki silindir y\u00fczeyle s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 mercekler de vard\u0131r.
\nMercek: Bir cisimden gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131k \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131 odaklayarak cismin optik g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc olu\u015fturmaya yarayan cam ya da bir ba\u015fka saydam malzemeye denir. Foto\u011fraf makinesi, g\u00f6zl\u00fck, mikroskop, teleskop gibi ayg\u0131tlarda merceklerden yararlan\u0131l\u0131r. I\u015f\u0131k, merce\u011fin i\u00e7inde hava da oldu\u011fundan daha yava\u015f ilerler;
\nbu nedenle de \u0131\u015f\u0131k demeti hem merce\u011fe girerken hem de mercekten \u00e7\u0131karken k\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r, yani aniden do\u011frultu de\u011fi\u015ftirir; merceklerin \u0131\u015f\u0131k \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131 odaklama etkisi de bu olgudan kaynaklan\u0131r.
\nMerceklerde, duyarl\u0131 bi\u00e7imde i\u015flenmi\u015f iki kar\u015f\u0131t y\u00fczey vard\u0131r; bu y\u00fczlerin her ikisi de k\u00fcresel olabilece\u011fi gibi, biri k\u00fcresel \u00f6teki d\u00fczlemsel olabilir. Mercekler, y\u00fczeylerinin bi\u00e7imine g\u00f6re, \u00e7ift d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey, d\u00fczlem d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey, yak\u0131nsak aymercek, \u00e7ift i\u00e7b\u00fckey, d\u00fczlem i\u00e7b\u00fckey ve \u0131raksak aymercek olarak s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r. Merce\u011fin e\u011fri y\u00fczeyi, gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131k demetindeki farkl\u0131 \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n farkl\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131larla k\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131na neden olur ve bu da, \u0131\u015f\u0131k demetindeki paralel \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n tek bir noktaya do\u011fru y\u00f6nelmesine (yak\u0131nsama) ya da bu noktadan \u00f6teye do\u011fru y\u00f6nelmesine (\u0131raksama) yol a\u00e7ar. Bu noktaya merce\u011fin odak noktas\u0131 ya da asal oda\u011f\u0131 denir. Bir cisimden yay\u0131lan ya da yans\u0131yarak gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131k \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n k\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131, bu \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n farkl\u0131 bir yerden geliyormu\u015f gibi alg\u0131lanmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7ar ve nitekim bu farkl\u0131 yerde de cismin optik bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc olu\u015fur. Bu g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc ger\u00e7ek (foto\u011fraf\u0131 \u00e7ekilebilir ya da ekran yans\u0131t\u0131labilir) olabilece\u011fi gibi sanal da (mikroskopta oldu\u011fu gibi, ancak merce\u011fin i\u00e7inden bak\u0131larak g\u00f6r\u00fclebilir) olabilir. Cismin optik g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc cismin kendisinden daha b\u00fcy\u00fck ya da daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck olabilir; bu durum, merce\u011fin odak uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131na ve cisim ile mercek aras\u0131ndaki uzakl\u0131\u011fa ba\u011fl\u0131d\u0131r.
\nDuyarl\u0131 ve net bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc olu\u015fturabilmek i\u00e7in genellikle tek bir mercek yetmez; bu nedenle de \u00f6rne\u011fin teleskoplarda, mikroskoplarda ya da foto\u011fraf makinelerinde, de\u011fi\u015fik mercek kombinasyonlar\u0131ndan yararlan\u0131l\u0131r. Bu t\u00fcr mercek gruplar\u0131ndaki merceklerden baz\u0131lar\u0131 d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey ve baz\u0131lar\u0131 i\u00e7b\u00fckey olabilece\u011fi gibi bunlar\u0131n baz\u0131lar\u0131 k\u0131rma ya da ay\u0131rma g\u00fcc\u00fc y\u00fcksek ve baz\u0131lar\u0131 da k\u0131rma ya da ay\u0131rma g\u00fcc\u00fc d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck camdan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olabilir. Gruptaki mercekler, her birinin sap\u0131nc\u0131 (aberasyon) istenen d\u00fczeyde olacak ve net bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc elde edilebilecek bi\u00e7imde, duyarl\u0131l\u0131kla saptanm\u0131\u015f uzakl\u0131klarda yerle\u015ftirilir ya da \u00fcst \u00fcste yap\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r. Mercekler yerle\u015ftirilirken y\u00fczeylerinin e\u011fiklik merkezinin asal eksen ya da optik eksen denen d\u00fcz bir hatt\u0131n \u00fczerinde bulunmas\u0131na \u00f6zen g\u00f6sterilir.
\nMercekler \u00e7ok de\u011fi\u015fik \u00e7aplarda yap\u0131labilir; \u00f6rne\u011fin mikroskoplarda 0,16 cm, teleskoplarda ise 100 cm\u2019lik mercekler kullan\u0131labilir. Daha b\u00fcy\u00fck teleskoplarda mercek yerine i\u00e7b\u00fckey aynalardan yararlan\u0131l\u0131r.<\/p>\n
Mercek \u00c7e\u015fitleri:<\/p>\n
Y\u00fczlerinin durumuna ve bi\u00e7imine g\u00f6re, \u00fc\u00e7\u00fc ince kenarl\u0131, \u00fc\u00e7\u00fc de kal\u0131n kenarl\u0131 olmak \u00fczere alt\u0131 t\u00fcr mercek ay\u0131rt edilir. Y\u00fczlerin C1 ve C2 e\u011frilik merkezlerinden ge\u00e7en do\u011fruya merce\u011fin ana ekseni ad\u0131 verilir ( y\u00fczlerden biri d\u00fczlemse, merkezlerden biri sonsuza gider). S1 S2 uzunlu\u011fu merce\u011fin kal\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131d\u0131r. Kal\u0131nl\u0131k, y\u00fczlerin e\u011frilik yar\u0131 \u00e7ap\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda \u00f6nemsiz kal\u0131yorsa, mercek ince, kar\u015f\u0131t bir durum s\u00f6z konusu oldu\u011funda da kal\u0131nd\u0131r. \u0130nce kenarlar\u0131n baz\u0131 \u00f6zellikleri, incelenmesi daha g\u00fc\u00e7 olan kal\u0131n merceklere de yayg\u0131nla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131labilir.
\n\u0130nce mercekler: \u0130nce mercekler durumunda S1 ve S2 noktalar\u0131n\u0131n, ana eksen \u00fczerinde bulunan ve merce\u011fin optik merkezi ad\u0131 verilen bir O noktas\u0131nda birbiriyle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131klar\u0131 kabul edilir. \u0130nce mercekler ince kenarl\u0131 ya da kal\u0131n kenarl\u0131 olabilirler. \u0130nce kenarl\u0131lar yak\u0131nsak merceklerdir: Ana eksene paralel olan her \u0131\u015f\u0131n demeti bir F noktas\u0131nda yak\u0131nsayarak g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr hale ge\u00e7er. Kal\u0131n kenarl\u0131lar s\u00f6z konusu oldu\u011fundaysa mercek \u0131raksakt\u0131r. Bu sonu\u00e7lar k\u0131r\u0131lma yasalar\u0131ndan kaynaklan\u0131r. Bir merce\u011fin, bir cismin tam belirgin (net) bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc vermesi i\u00e7in, cismin her noktas\u0131na g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn bir noktas\u0131 denk d\u00fc\u015fmelidir: Bu durumda sisteme stigmatik ad\u0131 verilir. Bunu ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirmek \u00e7ok g\u00fc\u00e7, hatta b\u00fcy\u00fck boyutlu cisimler s\u00f6z konusu oldu\u011funda olanaks\u0131zd\u0131r. Bununla birlikte, g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcy\u00fc olu\u015fturmak \u00fczere kullan\u0131lan \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n ana eksen ile yapt\u0131klar\u0131 e\u011fim az oldu\u011fu ve mercekten optik merkeze yak\u0131n ge\u00e7tikleri zaman (Gauss ko\u015fullar\u0131) yeterli derecede iyi bir sonu\u00e7 elde edilir.
\n Bu durumda, ana eksene dik bir d\u00fcz cisimden, eksene dik bir d\u00fcz g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc sa\u011flan\u0131r. G\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc, bu noktaya yerle\u015ftirilmi\u015f olan bir ekran \u00fczerinde g\u00f6zlenebiliyorsa buna ger\u00e7ek g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc, kar\u015f\u0131t durumdaysa zahir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc ad\u0131 verilir.
\nYak\u0131nsak mercekler: Ana eksene paralel \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n yak\u0131nsama noktas\u0131 olan F noktas\u0131na ana g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc-odak ad\u0131 verilir. Bu odak ana eksen do\u011frultusunda, sonsuzdaki bir nesne-noktan\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcd\u00fcr.(uygulamada nesne-noktan\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn tam F \u00fczerinde olmas\u0131 i\u00e7in, bu noktan\u0131n OF uzunlu\u011funun on kat\u0131 kadar bir uzakl\u0131kta bulunmas\u0131 \u00e7o\u011funlukla yeterli olur.)
\n \u00d6te yandan, ana eksen \u00fczerinde \u00f6yle bir F noktas\u0131 da belirlenebilir ki, F\u2019ten \u00e7\u0131kan \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar mercekten ge\u00e7tikten sonra ana eksene paralel bir \u0131\u015f\u0131n demeti olu\u015ftururlar. S\u00f6z konusu F noktas\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc bu durumda ana eksen \u00fczerinde sonsuzda bulunur ve F noktas\u0131na ana nesne-odak ad\u0131 verilir.
\n OF ve OF\u2019 uzunluklar\u0131 s\u0131ras\u0131yla merce\u011fin nesne-odak uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc-odak uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131 olarak adland\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r.<\/p>\n
Ana eksene e\u011fik olarak gelen paralel bir \u0131\u015f\u0131n demeti, ana eksene F\u2019 nokatas\u0131nda dik olan bir d\u00fczlemde ki bir H\u2019 noktas\u0131nda (ikincil g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc-odak) yak\u0131nsar; bu d\u00fczlem, g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc-odak d\u00fczlemidir. Ayn\u0131 bi\u00e7imde, ikincil nesne-odak ve nesne-odak d\u00fczlemi tan\u0131mlanabilir.
\n B\u0130R NESNEN\u0130N YAKINSAK B\u0130R MERCEK ARACILI\u011eIYLA VER\u0130LM\u0130\u015e G\u00d6R\u00dcNT\u00dcS\u00dcN\u00dcN GEOMETR\u0130K OLARAK ELDE ED\u0130LMES\u0130. Basit olarak bir AB do\u011fru par\u00e7as\u0131yla g\u00f6sterilmi\u015f olan d\u00fcz bir nesne ve mercek konumu ve boyutlar\u0131 \u00e7izim yoluyla saptanabilen bir A\u2019 B\u2019 g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc verir(\u00c7izim kolayl\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in baz\u0131 noktalar ana eksenden uzakla\u015fm\u0131\u015f olsalar bile, Gauss ko\u015fullar\u0131n\u0131n ger\u00e7ekli\u011fi kabul edilir). Merce\u011fin ana ekseni \u00fcst\u00fcnde bir A noktas\u0131yla, bu eksene dik olan AB do\u011frusu se\u00e7ilir. Aranan g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc, merce\u011fin ana eksenine dik olan ve B noktas\u0131ndan B\u2019 g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc bilindi\u011finden tam olarak saptanan bir A\u2019B\u2019 do\u011fru par\u00e7as\u0131d\u0131r. B\u2019 elde etmek i\u00e7in, B\u2019den \u00e7\u0131kan demetin iki \u00f6zel \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcne al\u0131n\u0131r(geometride, bir nokta, bilinen iki do\u011frunun kesi\u015fmesiyle tam olarak belirlenir);s\u00f6zgelimi, F noktas\u0131ndan ge\u00e7erek gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131nla, O optik merkezden ge\u00e7erek gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131n kullan\u0131labilir. Bu iki \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n kesi\u015fme noktas\u0131, aranan B\u2019 noktas\u0131d\u0131r(B\u2019den ge\u00e7en \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n t\u00fcm\u00fc, mercekten ge\u00e7tikten sonra B\u2019 noktas\u0131ndanda ge\u00e7erler). Nesnenin konumuna g\u00f6re g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc ger\u00e7ek yada zahiridir.
\nIraksak mercekler:Ana eksene paralel \u0131\u015f\u0131nl\u0131 bir demete F\u2019 noktas\u0131ndan \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yormu\u015f gibi olan \u0131raksak bir demet denk d\u00fc\u015fer; bu noktaya anag\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc-odak denir. Ana nesne-odak ad\u0131 verilen birF noktas\u0131nda, zahiri olarak yak\u0131nsayacak bi\u00e7imde bir demetin mercek \u00fcst\u00fcne g\u00f6nderilmesiyle, ana eksene paralel olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan bir demet elde edilir. Yak\u0131nsak mercekteki gibi, \u0131raksak merceklerde de g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc-odak ve nesne-odak d\u00fczlemleri ile g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc-odak ve nesne-odak uzakl\u0131klar\u0131\u2019n\u0131n tan\u0131m\u0131 yap\u0131l\u0131r.
\nB\u0130R NESNEN\u0130N IRAKSAK B\u0130R MERCEK ARACILI\u011eIYLA VER\u0130LM\u0130\u015e G\u00d6R\u00dcNT\u00dcS\u00dcN\u00dcN GEOMETR\u0130K OLARAK ELDE ED\u0130LMES\u0130. Burada da yak\u0131nsak mercekler i\u00e7in yap\u0131lan i\u015flemin ayn\u0131s\u0131 ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilir:B noktas\u0131ndan \u00e7\u0131kan iki \u00f6zel \u0131\u015f\u0131n (s\u00f6zgelimi,biri O\u2019 dan, \u00f6teki F\u2019 den ge\u00e7en ) kullan\u0131l\u0131r. Birincisi sapmaz;ikincisiyse ana eksene paralel olarak \u00e7\u0131kan bir \u0131\u015f\u0131n gibi sapar. Bu iki \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n kesi\u015fme noktas\u0131, aranan B\u2019 noktas\u0131d\u0131r. Nesnenin konumuna g\u00f6re, g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc ger\u00e7ek yada zahiridir.<\/p>\n
Mercek Sap\u0131n\u00e7lar\u0131: <\/p>\n
Mercek Gauss ko\u015fullar\u0131na uygun olarak kullan\u0131lmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 zaman, elde edilen g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcler bozulur ve sap\u0131n\u00e7 (aberasyon) diye adland\u0131r\u0131lan olaylar g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr.
\nRenkser Sap\u0131n\u00e7: Beyaz \u0131\u015f\u0131kta ayd\u0131nlanm\u0131\u015f bir nesne, az ya da \u00e7ok \u00f6nemli renklenme g\u00f6steren bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc verir. Buna merce\u011fin k\u0131r\u0131lma indisinin, \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n dalga boyuyla birlikte de\u011fi\u015fmesi yol a\u00e7ar. Beyaz \u0131\u015f\u0131k farkl\u0131 renklerdeki belirli say\u0131da \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131m\u0131n \u00fcst \u00fcste gelmesi bi\u00e7iminde ele al\u0131n\u0131rsa (tek bile\u015fenli [tek renkli] \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131m) bu \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131mlar\u0131 morunkilerle ayn\u0131 noktaya yak\u0131nsamazlar. B\u00f6ylelikle farkl\u0131 renklerde bir\u00e7ok g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc elde edilir. Bunlar ancak k\u0131smen \u00fcst \u00fcste gelirler.
\nGeometrik Sap\u0131n\u00e7: B\u00fcy\u00fck a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131ml\u0131 bir demet kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda bir nesne noktas\u0131, bir P\u2019g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc noktas\u0131 verir; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc merce\u011fin kenar b\u00f6lgelerinden ge\u00e7en \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar eksene yak\u0131n b\u00f6lgeden ge\u00e7enlere oranla daha \u00e7ok parlar; yak\u0131nsak bir merce\u011fin merkez b\u00f6lgesine g\u00f6re kenarlar\u0131 da yak\u0131nsak, \u0131raksak bir merce\u011fin kenarlar\u0131 da daha \u0131raksakt\u0131r (k\u00fcresel sap\u0131nma). Yukar\u0131daki bozulma d\u00fczeltilse bile, mercek, ana eksenin yak\u0131n\u0131nda bulunan bir noktan\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc, bu noktadan \u00e7\u0131kan demet \u00e7ok geni\u015fse normal bi\u00e7iminde vermez. Bi\u00e7imi kuyruklu y\u0131ld\u0131z\u0131 (komet) an\u0131msatan bir leke elde edilir; bu sap\u0131nca koma ad\u0131 verilir.
\n Dar demetlerin kullan\u0131lmas\u0131, kusurlardan ar\u0131nm\u0131\u015f g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclerin elde edilmesi i\u00e7in yeterli olmaz. Ger\u00e7ek merce\u011fin ana eksenine \u00e7ok e\u011fimli olarak gelen ince bir \u0131\u015f\u0131k demetiyle nesne-noktan\u0131n iki ayr\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc meydana gelir. Astigmatizm ad\u0131 verilen bu sap\u0131n\u00e7 bir dairesel yar\u0131 \u00e7aplar\u0131n\u0131 ayn\u0131 anda net bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc elde edilmesinin olanaks\u0131zla\u015fmas\u0131ndan kaynaklan\u0131r: Yatay \u00e7ap belirgin olunca dikey \u00e7ap belirsizdir; bu durumun tersi de s\u00f6z konusudur.
\n Ayr\u0131ca bu kusurlar d\u00fczeltilse bile ana eksene dik olan geni\u015f bir d\u00fczlemsel y\u00fczeyin g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc e\u011fri bir y\u00fczeydir. Bu kusara alan e\u011frili\u011fi ad\u0131 verilir.
\n Yukar\u0131da s\u00f6z\u00fc edilen kusurlar giderildikten sonra ba\u015fkalar\u0131 ortaya \u00e7\u0131kabilir; bunlar\u0131n sonucu olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclerin do\u011frusal b\u00fcy\u00fcmesi, merce\u011fin ekseninden uzakla\u015ft\u0131k\u00e7a artar. B\u00f6ylece, eksenden ge\u00e7meyen bir do\u011fru \u00e7izgi i\u00e7b\u00fckeyli\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn merkezine do\u011fru (f\u0131\u00e7\u0131 bi\u00e7iminde b\u00fck\u00fclme) ya da ters y\u00f6nde (hilal bi\u00e7iminde b\u00fck\u00fclme) d\u00f6nm\u00fc\u015f olan e\u011fri bir \u00e7izgi verir.
\nBu sap\u0131n\u00e7lar\u0131n azalt\u0131lmas\u0131 sorunu \u00e7ok g\u00fc\u00e7t\u00fcr, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc d\u00fczeltilmeleri i\u00e7in gerekli ko\u015fullar \u00e7o\u011fu kez birbirine kar\u015f\u0131tt\u0131r. G\u00f6zl\u00fck\u00e7\u00fcler, iste\u011fe g\u00f6re, \u00e7e\u015fitli merceklerin bi\u00e7imlerinden, maddelerinden ve kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 yerlerinden yararlanmak amac\u0131yla bir \u00e7ok merce\u011fi bir arada kullan\u0131rlar.<\/p>\n
\u00d6zel Mercekler:<\/p>\n
Silindirik mercekler, silindir bir y\u00fczey ve bir d\u00fczlemle, k\u00fcresel-silindirik mercekler bir k\u00fcre ve silindirle s\u0131n\u0131rland\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Baz\u0131 merceklerse y\u00fczlerinden biri bir d\u00fczlem ya da bir k\u00fcreyle de\u011fi\u015ftirilebilen, iki tor y\u00fczeyiyle s\u0131n\u0131rland\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r; bu tor mercekler \u00f6zellikle g\u00f6zlerdeki astigmat durumunun d\u00fczeltilmesine yararlar. Fresnel\u2019in deniz fenerlerinde kullan\u0131lan kademeli mercekleri eksenin k\u00fcresel sap\u0131nc\u0131n\u0131n k\u0131smen, ama yeterli olarak giderilmesini sa\u011flar. Merkez b\u00f6lgesinin kal\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n azalt\u0131lmas\u0131, b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00e7apta uygulamalar\u0131n ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilmesine olanak verir. B\u00f6ylelikle \u0131s\u0131nma ve b\u00fcy\u00fck enerji yitimi tehlikesi de azalt\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olur. <\/p>\n
Merceklerin Kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 Yerler:<\/p>\n
D\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey mercekler foto\u011fraf makinelerinde kullan\u0131l\u0131r. Foto\u011fraf makinesinde, merce\u011fin hemen arkas\u0131nda bir foto\u011fraf filmi bulunur. Foto\u011fraf makinesinin boyutlar\u0131 ve film ile mercek aras\u0131ndaki uzakl\u0131k g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcnde tutlacak olursa, foto\u011fraf\u0131 \u00e7ekilecek g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn makineye olduk\u00e7a uzak oldu\u011fu kavranabilir. \u0130\u015fte mercek bu uzaktaki cisimlerden, insanlardan ya da manzartadan gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131k \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131 toplayarak ard\u0131ndaki film \u00fczerinde \u00f6daklar ve burada g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn ba\u015f a\u015fa\u011f\u0131, yani ters bir resmini olu\u015fturur. Refleks tipi makinelerde, birincisinin ayn\u0131s\u0131 ikinci bir mercek daha bulunur; bu mercek, ayn\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcy\u00fc arkadaki bir cam ekran\u0131n \u00fczerine d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcrerek foto\u011fraf\u00e7\u0131n\u0131n odaklama ayar\u0131n\u0131 iyi yapabilmesine ve \u00e7ekece\u011fi resmi tam olarak g\u00f6rebilmesini sa\u011flar.
\nZoom objektifli\u011fi makinelerde ise odak uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n de\u011fi\u015fmesini sa\u011flayan ayr\u0131 bir mercek sistemi bulunur.
\nSinema filmi g\u00f6stericilerinden ya da slayt makinelerinde parlak bi\u00e7imde ayd\u0131nlat\u0131lm\u0131\u015f filmden gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131k \u00fczerine d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcrmeye yarayan d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey mercekler kullan\u0131l\u0131r. Film yaln\u0131zca 35 mm geni\u015fli\u011findedir, ama ekran \u00fczerine d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcr\u00fclen g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn geni\u015fli\u011fi metrelerce olabilir.<\/p>\n
G\u00f6zdeki Mercek :<\/p>\n
G\u00f6zde de, g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcy\u00fc olu\u015fturan bir d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey mercek sistemi vard\u0131r. \u00d6ndeki kavisli, saydam katman (kornea) ile aras\u0131ndaki suyumsu s\u0131v\u0131 bir s\u0131v\u0131 mercek olu\u015fturur; g\u00f6zbebe\u011finden (iristeki k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck delik ) g\u00f6ze giren \u0131\u015f\u0131k, ilk a\u015famada bu mercek taraf\u0131ndan odaklan\u0131r. Sonra \u0131\u015f\u0131k, g\u00f6zbebe\u011finin ard\u0131nda yer alan, i\u00e7teki d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey g\u00f6z merce\u011finden ge\u00e7er. Bak\u0131lmakta olan cismin g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn odaklama ayar\u0131n\u0131n yap\u0131labilmesi i\u00e7in, k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck kaslar g\u00f6z merce\u011finin e\u011frili\u011fini ve bi\u00e7imini de\u011fi\u015ftirebilir. G\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc, g\u00f6z\u00fcn arkas\u0131nda, a\u011ftabaka denen \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011fa duyarl\u0131 bir alan\u0131n \u00fczerinde olu\u015fur. Mercek sistemi d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey oldu\u011fundan g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc ba\u015f a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 gelmi\u015f durumdad\u0131r;g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcy\u00fc do\u011fru konuma getiren beyindir.<\/p>\n
Merce\u011fin Olu\u015fturdu\u011fu G\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc: <\/p>\n
Elinize d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey, yani yak\u0131nsak bir mercek al\u0131n ve merce\u011fi bir cisme iyice yakla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131n; \u00f6yle ki, mercek ile cisim aras\u0131ndaki uzakl\u0131k, merce\u011fin odak uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck olsun. Bu durumda cismi do\u011fal konumunda, am b\u00fcy\u00fclt\u00fclm\u00fc\u015f olarak g\u00f6receksiniz. Daha sonra merce\u011fin ard\u0131na, yani sizin bakt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131z taraf\u0131na bir kart koyun; bu durumda, kart\u0131n \u00fczerinde cismin g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn olu\u015fmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 fark edeceksiniz(oysa pencereye tutulan mercek \u00f6rne\u011finde g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc olu\u015fmu\u015ftu ). Kart, film yada ekran \u00fczerine d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcr\u00fclebilen g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclere \u201cger\u00e7ek \u201c g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc denir. Bu t\u00fcr y\u00fczeylerin \u00fczerinde olu\u015fturulamayan g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclere de sanal g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc ad\u0131 verilir yada eski ad\u0131yla zahiri g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc denir. Sanal g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcler ancak merce\u011fin i\u00e7inden bak\u0131larak g\u00f6r\u00fclebilir.
\n Bir b\u00fcy\u00fcte\u00e7 ya da oyuncak bir teleskopla bakarken, g\u00f6zlenen cismin \u00e7evresinde genellikle renkli sa\u00e7aklar\u0131n olu\u015ftu\u011funu g\u00f6r\u00fcrs\u00fcn\u00fcz. Bunun nedeni farkl\u0131 renklerden \u0131\u015f\u0131k \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n mercekten ge\u00e7erken farkl\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131larla k\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131d\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin, mavi \u0131\u015f\u0131k \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131 k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 \u0131\u015f\u0131k \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131ndan daha b\u00fcy\u00fck bir a\u00e7\u0131yla k\u0131r\u0131lmaya u\u011frar. Beyaz \u0131\u015f\u0131k, g\u00f6kku\u015fa\u011f\u0131ndaki b\u00fct\u00fcn renklerin kar\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131ndan olu\u015ftu\u011fu i\u00e7in, g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn \u00e7evresinde bir g\u00f6kku\u015fa\u011f\u0131 sa\u00e7a\u011f\u0131 olu\u015fur. Bu sa\u00e7a\u011f\u0131 gidermek i\u00e7in mercek, her biri ayr\u0131 t\u00fcr camdan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f iki katman halinde haz\u0131rlan\u0131r. Bu tip merceklere bile\u015fik mercek denir. Bunlar\u0131n \u00fcretimi olduk\u00e7a zor ve masrafl\u0131d\u0131r; kaliteli foto\u011fraf makinelerinin ve d\u00fcrb\u00fcnlerin pahal\u0131 olmas\u0131n\u0131n nedeni de budur.<\/p>\n
Merceklerin Yap\u0131m\u0131 ve Tarihi: <\/p>\n
Mercekler, cam bloklar\u0131n\u0131n karborundum (silisyum karb\u00fcr) ya da korindon (al\u00fcminyum oksit) gibi a\u015f\u0131nd\u0131r\u0131c\u0131 bir tozla z\u0131mparalanmas\u0131ndan sonra, demir oksitli bir cila macunuyla perdahlanmas\u0131(parlat\u0131lmas\u0131) yoluyla haz\u0131rlan\u0131r. Bu i\u015flemlerden baz\u0131lar\u0131 makineyle ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilir, ama gene de mercek yap\u0131ms\u00fcreci yava\u015f ve pahal\u0131d\u0131r; son perdah i\u015flemi ve merce\u011fin s\u0131nanmas\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck h\u00fcner ister. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde, g\u00f6zl\u00fck cam\u0131, kontak lens ve b\u00fcy\u00fcte\u00e7 yap\u0131m\u0131nda plastiklerden de yararlan\u0131l\u0131r; bu t\u00fcr g\u00f6zl\u00fck camlar\u0131na piyasada organik cam denir.
\n Eski Yunanl\u0131lar ve Romal\u0131lar, g\u00fcne\u015f \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131 odakl\u0131yarak ate\u015f yakmak i\u00e7in bazen i\u00e7i su dolu cam kaplardan yararlan\u0131rlard\u0131. G\u00f6zl\u00fck ve b\u00fcy\u00fcte\u00e7 1300\u2019den \u00f6nce; teleskop 1608\u2019de icat edildi. \u00c7ok g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir b\u00fcy\u00fcte\u00e7 t\u00fcr\u00fc olan M\u0130KROSKOP;TELESKOP kendi maddelerinde ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 olarak i\u015flenmi\u015ftir. Toplui\u011fne ba\u015f\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcndeki merceklerden, 1 metre \u00e7ap\u0131ndaki merceklere kadar \u00e7ok de\u011fi\u015fik boyutlarada mercekler yap\u0131labilir. ABD\u2019de, Wisconsin\u2019deki Yerkes G\u00f6zlemevi\u2019nde bulunan b\u00fcy\u00fck teleskopun objektif b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc 1 metredir. <\/p>\n
TELESKOP<\/p>\n
Teleskop, \u00e7\u0131plak g\u00f6zle g\u00f6r\u00fclemeyecek kadar uzakta olan cisimlere bakmak i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lan bir ayg\u0131tt\u0131r. Optik teleskoplar, uzaktaki cisimden gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131k \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n toplanmas\u0131 ve bu \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n cismin b\u00fcy\u00fct\u00fclm\u00fc\u015f bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc elde edecek bi\u00e7imde odaklanmas\u0131 ilkesine dayal\u0131 olarak \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131r. Ama radyo dalgalar\u0131 gibi ba\u015fka \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131m t\u00fcrlerini toplayan teleskoplar da vard\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin; radyoastronomi alan\u0131nda kullan\u0131lan radyoteleskoplar \u00e7ok \u00f6nemli ayg\u0131tlard\u0131r. Optik teleskoplar\u0131n en \u00f6nemli kullan\u0131m alan\u0131 astronomidir; bunlardan ayr\u0131ca, karada ve denizde uzak cisimlerin g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclerini b\u00fcy\u00fcltmekte, yer\u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcm\u00fc ayg\u0131tlar\u0131nda ve sekstantlarda da yararlan\u0131l\u0131r. D\u00fcrb\u00fcnler asl\u0131nda, yan yana getirilmi\u015f iki teleskoptan ba\u015fka bir \u015fey de\u011fildir.(bkz.d\u00fcrb\u00fcn)
\n Teleskopu kimin buldu\u011fu kesin olarak bilinmemektedir. Bir s\u00f6ylentiye g\u00f6re, 1608\u2019de Hollanda\u2019da Hans Lippershey ad\u0131ndaki Middelburglu bir g\u00f6zl\u00fck yap\u0131mc\u0131s\u0131, bir g\u00fcn rastlant\u0131 sonucu, art arda duran iki mercekten bakm\u0131\u015f ve yak\u0131ndaki kilisenin r\u00fczgarg\u00fcl\u00fcn\u00fcn \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck olarak g\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015f, b\u00f6ylece de teleskopu ke\u015ffetmi\u015ftir. Ama baz\u0131lar\u0131na g\u00f6re, teleskop 1608\u2019den \u00f6nce de bilinmekteydi.
\n Teleskop bulunduktan sonra h\u0131zla ba\u015fka \u00fclkelere de yay\u0131ld\u0131. \u0130talyan bilim adam\u0131 Galileo Galilei teleskopun astronomi i\u00e7in \u00e7ok yararl\u0131 olabilece\u011fini fark etti. Galileo 1610\u2019dan ba\u015flayarak kendisi i\u00e7in \u00e7e\u015fitli teleskoplar yapt\u0131 ve bunlarla pek \u00e7ok \u00f6nemli astronomi ke\u015ffinde bulundu. Ay\u2019daki da\u011flar\u0131, Jupiter\u2019in en b\u00fcy\u00fck d\u00f6rt uydusunu, Ven\u00fcs\u2019\u00fcn evrelerini, Samanyolu G\u00f6kadas\u0131\u2019ndaki y\u0131ld\u0131z alanlar\u0131n\u0131 ve G\u00fcne\u015f lekelerini de i\u00e7ine alan bu ke\u015fifler astronomi tarihinde bir d\u00f6n\u00fcm noktas\u0131 olu\u015fturur.
\n \u00d6nceleri b\u00fct\u00fcn teleskoplar bir i\u00e7b\u00fckey mercek (ortas\u0131 u\u00e7lar\u0131ndan daha ince olan \u0131raksak mercek ) ile bir d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey mercekten (ortas\u0131 u\u00e7lar\u0131ndan daha kal\u0131n olan \u0131raksak mercek ) yap\u0131l\u0131rd\u0131. Bunlara Galileo teleskopu denirdi. Alman astronom Johannes Kepler, bir i\u00e7b\u00fckey ve bir d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey mercek yerine iki d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey mercek kullan\u0131larak daha iyi bir teleskop yap\u0131labilece\u011fini ileri s\u00fcrd\u00fc ve bu t\u00fcrden ilk teleskop 1630 dolaylar\u0131nda ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirildi. Kepler teleskopu denen bu t\u00fcr bir teleskopun astronomi i\u00e7in Galileo teleskoplar\u0131ndan daha uygun oldu\u011fu ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131 ve Kepler teleskopu k\u0131sa s\u00fcrede yayg\u0131nla\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n
Mercekli Teleskoplar:<\/p>\n
Galileo ve Kepler teleskoplar\u0131n\u0131n her ikisi de mercekli teleskoptu ve \u0131\u015f\u0131k \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n k\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 temeline dayal\u0131 olarak \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yordu. Objektif denen b\u00fcy\u00fck mercek, uzaktaki cisimden gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131k \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131 k\u0131r\u0131lmaya u\u011fratarak belirli bir odakta toplar. G\u00f6zlemci, g\u00f6z merce\u011fi denen ve objektifin olu\u015fturdu\u011fu g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcy\u00fc b\u00fcy\u00fctmeye yarayan daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck mercekten bakar. Mercekli teleskoplar \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n k\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 ilkesine dayal\u0131 olarak \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in k\u0131r\u0131lmal\u0131 teleskop olarak da adland\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r.
\n Galileo b\u00fct\u00fcn g\u00f6zlemlerini, merceklerinin \u00e7ap\u0131 5 cm den daha k\u0131sa olan k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck teleskoplarla yapm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Sonraki astronomlar, daha \u00e7ok \u0131\u015f\u0131k toplayabilen daha b\u00fcy\u00fck mercekler kulland\u0131lar.
\n \u0130lk mercekli teleskop yap\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n ve kullan\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 en b\u00fcy\u00fck sorunlardan biri, farkl\u0131 renklerdeki \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n farkl\u0131 miktarlarda yada a\u00e7\u0131larda k\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 olgusuydu. Mavi \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 \u0131\u015f\u0131ktan daha \u00e7ok k\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 yada benzeri durumlar, ilk k\u0131r\u0131lmal\u0131 teleskop yada merceklerinin hafif bulan\u0131k bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc vermesi ve g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn \u00e7evresinde bir renk sa\u00e7a\u011f\u0131 olu\u015fmas\u0131na neden oluyordu. Bu sorunu 18.yy\u2019\u0131n sonlar\u0131nda iki \u0130ngiliz mucit \u00e7\u00f6zd\u00fc. Chester Moor Hall ve John Dollond birbirlerinden habersiz s\u00fcrd\u00fcrd\u00fckleri \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar sonucunda, farkl\u0131 cam t\u00fcrlerinden yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f merceklerin kullan\u0131lmas\u0131yla g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcdeki bulan\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ve renk sa\u00e7aklar\u0131n\u0131n ortadan kald\u0131rabilece\u011fini buldular. Sonraki teleskop yap\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131 da daha b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00e7apl\u0131 mercek yapma y\u00f6ntemleri geli\u015ftirdiler. Mercekli teleskop bug\u00fcn de \u00f6nemini korumaktad\u0131r, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc bunlara ba\u015fka ayg\u0131tlar tak\u0131larak g\u00f6kcisimlerinin do\u011frudan \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcmleri yap\u0131labilmektedir.<\/p>\n
Aynal\u0131 Teleskop:<\/p>\n
Aynal\u0131 teleskoplarda \u0131\u015f\u0131k \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131, bir \u00e7ukur aynadan yans\u0131tma yoluyla toplan\u0131r ve odaklan\u0131r. Bu t\u00fcr teleskoplara yans\u0131mal\u0131 teleskop da denir. \u0130lk aynal\u0131 teleskopu 1668\u2019de b\u00fcy\u00fck \u0130ngiliz bilim adam\u0131 Sir Isaac Newton yapt\u0131. Aynal\u0131 teleskopun, b\u00fct\u00fcn renkleri ayn\u0131 bi\u00e7imde yans\u0131tmak ve ilk mercekli teleskoplarda g\u00f6r\u00fclen t\u00fcrden bir bulan\u0131kl\u0131\u011fa ve renk sa\u00e7aklanmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7mamak gibi b\u00fcy\u00fck bir \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc vard\u0131. Alman as\u0131ll\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck \u0130ngiliz astronom Sir William Herschel da aynal\u0131 teleskop yap\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 geli\u015ftirenler aras\u0131ndad\u0131r. Sir Herschel aynalar\u0131n\u0131 kendisi ta\u015flar ve parlat\u0131rd\u0131. 1781\u2019de Uran\u00fcs gezegenini ke\u015ffetti\u011finde kendi yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 teleskoptan yararlanm\u0131\u015f ve sonraki 30 y\u0131lda da sistematik bir y\u0131ld\u0131z ve bulutsu katalo\u011fu haz\u0131rlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n
G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz Teleskoplar\u0131:<\/p>\n
\u0130yi bir astronomi teleskopu net bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc verebilmeli ve soluk cisimlerin a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a g\u00f6r\u00fclebilmesini sa\u011flayacak kadar \u00e7ok \u0131\u015f\u0131k toplayabilmelidir. Mercekli teleskopta net g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc, tek objektif yerine iki ya da daha \u00e7ok mercek kullan\u0131larak ve bu mercekler titizce ta\u015flan\u0131p parlat\u0131larak elde edilir. Aynal\u0131 teleskopta ise bu, aynan\u0131n titizce ta\u015flanma\u015f\u0131 ve parlat\u0131lmas\u0131yla sa\u011flan\u0131r. Objektif merceklerinin ya da aynan\u0131n alan\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fcd\u00fck\u00e7e \u0131\u015f\u0131k toplama g\u00fcc\u00fcde artar.
\n Bug\u00fcn kullan\u0131lmakta olan b\u00fcy\u00fck teleskoplar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011fu aynal\u0131 teleskoplard\u0131r. Bunun bir nedeni, kusursuz bir ayna yapman\u0131n kusursuz bir mercek yapmaktan daha kolay olmas\u0131d\u0131r. Bir ba\u015fka neden de, aynan\u0131n belirli bir y\u00fczeye yerle\u015ftirilerek do\u011fru konumda kolayca tutulabilmesidir; oysa mercekler, \u0131\u015f\u0131k ge\u00e7i\u015fini engellememek i\u00e7in ancak kenarlar\u0131ndan tutturulabilir ve b\u00fcy\u00fck, a\u011f\u0131r mercekleri sa\u011flam bir bi\u00e7imde bir yere oturtabilmek \u00e7ok g\u00fc\u00e7t\u00fcr.
\n Cam aynalar 19.yy\u2019\u0131n ortalar\u0131nda, cam y\u00fczeylerin g\u00fcm\u00fc\u015fle kaplanmas\u0131 y\u00f6nteminin bulunmas\u0131ndan sonra yayg\u0131nla\u015ft\u0131. Daha \u00f6nceleri teleskop aynalar\u0131, y\u00fczde 68 oran\u0131nda bak\u0131r ve y\u00fczde 32 oran\u0131nda kalaydan olu\u015fan bir ala\u015f\u0131mdan yap\u0131l\u0131rd\u0131. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde b\u00fcy\u00fck aynalar genellikle g\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f yerine al\u00fcminyumla kaplan\u0131r; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc al\u00fcminyum daha uzun \u00f6m\u00fcrl\u00fcd\u00fcr, k\u0131sa dalga boylu \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131 daha iyi yans\u0131t\u0131r ve kolayca kararmaz.
\n B\u00fcy\u00fck teleskoplarda, objektif merceklerinin yada aynan\u0131n bulundu\u011fu t\u00fcp b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc, g\u00f6ky\u00fcz\u00fcn\u00fcn her y\u00f6n\u00fcne d\u00f6nebilen bir sehpan\u0131n \u00fczerine yerle\u015ftirilir; b\u00f6ylece, se\u00e7ilen g\u00f6kcisminin, D\u00fcnya\u2019n\u0131n d\u00f6nmesinden kaynaklanan hareketi s\u0131ras\u0131nda da izlenmesi olanakl\u0131 olur. Teleskoplar bir \u00e7ark sistemi yada elektrik motorlar\u0131yla d\u00f6nd\u00fcr\u00fcl\u00fcr; b\u00fcy\u00fck teleskoplarda her konum de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fi elektriksel olarak ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilir ve bilgisayarla denetlenir.
\n Teleskoplar genellikle kameralarla, bazen de gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n rengini kaydetmekmek i\u00e7in, spektrograflarla donat\u0131l\u0131r. Kameral\u0131 teleskoplar\u0131n \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc, g\u00f6zle do\u011frudan g\u00f6r\u00fclemeyecek kadar solgun y\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131n foto\u011fraflar\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7ekilebilmesidir, bunun i\u00e7in objektif uzun bir s\u00fcre a\u00e7\u0131k b\u0131rak\u0131l\u0131r. Kal\u0131c\u0131 bir kay\u0131t bi\u00e7imi olan foto\u011fraf\u0131n ge\u00e7mi\u015fte astronomide b\u00fcy\u00fck bir \u00f6nemi olmu\u015ftur. Bug\u00fcn foto\u011fraf tekniklerinin yerini alm\u0131\u015f olan \u00f6zel elektronik ayg\u0131tlar\u0131n yard\u0131m\u0131yla \u00e7ok daha solgun cisimlerin varl\u0131klar\u0131 belirlenebilmektedir. Teleskop g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcleri televizyon ekran\u0131na akt\u0131r\u0131labilmekte ve bilgisayarda saklanabilmektedir.
\n Belirli ama\u00e7lar i\u00e7in \u00f6zel teleskoplar geli\u015ftirilmi\u015ftir. Bunlardan baz\u0131lar\u0131, parlakl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve \u0131s\u0131s\u0131 nedeniyle ancak \u00f6zel ayg\u0131tlarla g\u00f6zlemlenebilen G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019in foto\u011fraflar\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7ekmekte kullan\u0131l\u0131r. G\u00f6ky\u00fcz\u00fcn\u00fcn geni\u015f bir kesiminin foto\u011fraf\u0131n\u0131 an\u0131nda \u00e7ekmeye yarayan \u00f6zel teleskoplar da vard\u0131r; bu teleskop t\u00fcr\u00fc 1929\u2019da Alman astronom Bernhard Schmidt(1879-1935) taraf\u0131ndan bulunmu\u015ftur ve Schmidt teleskopu olarak an\u0131l\u0131r.<\/p>\n
\u00dcnl\u00fc Teleskoplar: <\/p>\n
D\u00fcnyan\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fck mercekli teleskopu 1897\u2019de ABD\u2019de Wisconsin eyaletine ba\u011fl\u0131 William Bay\u2019deki Yerkes G\u00f6zlemevi\u2019nde kurulmu\u015ftur. Bu, 102 santimetrelik bir teleskoptur. (verilen b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fck, mercekli teleskoplarda objektif \u00e7ap\u0131n\u0131, aynal\u0131 teleskoplarda ise aynan\u0131n \u00e7ap\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6sterir.) Teleskopun mercekleri ta\u015f\u0131yan t\u00fcp\u00fcn\u00fcn uzunlu\u011fu 18 metredir. Art\u0131k \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck mercekli teleskop yap\u0131lmamaktad\u0131r, ama bu aynal\u0131 teleskoplar i\u00e7in ge\u00e7erli de\u011fildir.
\n En b\u00fcy\u00fck aynal\u0131 teleskoplardan biri, 1935-48 aras\u0131nda, ABD\u2019de California\u2019daki Palomar Da\u011f\u0131 G\u00f6zlemevi\u2019nde kurulmu\u015f olan 5,1metrelik Hale teleskopudur. Teleskopun yaln\u0131zca aynas\u0131n\u0131n a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131 18 tondur, aynay\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131yan t\u00fcp 17 metre uzunlu\u011fundad\u0131r ve 140 ton a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndad\u0131r. Sehpas\u0131yla birlikte teleskopun toplam a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131 500 tona ula\u015fmaktad\u0131r. Ama bu b\u00fcy\u00fck k\u00fctle, k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir kuvvetle d\u00f6nd\u00fcr\u00fclebilecek kadar duyarl\u0131 bir bi\u00e7imde dengelenmi\u015ftir.
\n ABD\u2019de Arizona eyaletindeki Kitt Peak\u2019te kurulu olan g\u00f6zlemevinde bir d\u00fczineden \u00e7ok teleskop vard\u0131r. Bunlar\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fc\u011f\u00fc, yap\u0131m\u0131 1973\u2019te tamamlanan 4 metrelik Mayall aynal\u0131 teleskopudur. G\u00fcne\u015f etkinliklerini incelemek i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lan, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fck G\u00fcne\u015f teleskopu da Kitt Peak\u2019tedir.
\n \u00c7ok aynal\u0131 teleskop sistemlerinin ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilmesiyle teleskop tasar\u0131m\u0131nda b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ilerleme sa\u011flanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu sistemde bir ka\u00e7 ayna \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131 ortak bir odak noktas\u0131n\u0131n \u00fczerinde toplar. Her ayna \u00e7ok duyarl\u0131 bir bi\u00e7imde bilgisayarla denetlenir ve b\u00f6ylece verdikleri g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclerin tam olarak \u00fcst \u00fcste d\u00fc\u015fmesi(\u00f6rt\u00fc\u015fmesi) sa\u011flan\u0131r. Arizona eyaletindeki Hopkins Da\u011f\u0131\u2019nda bulunan alt\u0131 aynal\u0131 teleskopun g\u00fcc\u00fc, 5 metrelik bir teleskopunkine e\u015fde\u011ferdir; ama maliyeti \u00e7ok daha d\u00fc\u015f\u00fckt\u00fcr. Toplam olarak 15 metrelik \u00e7apa e\u015fde\u011fer, birden \u00e7ok ayna kullanan teleskop tasar\u0131mlar\u0131 geli\u015ftirilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n
Modern teleskoplar\u0131n kurulmas\u0131 i\u00e7in harcanmas\u0131 gereken para \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck oldu\u011fundan astronomlar bunlar\u0131 olabildi\u011fince verimli bir bi\u00e7imde kullanmak isterler. G\u00f6zlemlerde bug\u00fcn art\u0131k foto\u011fraf tekniklerinden pek fazla yararlan\u0131lmamaktad\u0131r, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131 alg\u0131lamak ve l\u00f6\u00e7mek i\u00e7in duyarl\u0131 elektronik ayg\u0131tlar\u0131n kullan\u0131lmas\u0131na dayal\u0131 daha iyi y\u00f6ntemler geli\u015ftirilmi\u015ftir. Ama bug\u00fcn de Schmidt teleskoplar\u0131nda foto\u011fraf tekniklerinden yararlan\u0131l\u0131r.
\n Teleskoplar bulutlar\u0131n, su buhar\u0131n\u0131n ve atmosfer kirlili\u011finin olumsuz etkilerini azaltmak i\u00e7in da\u011flar\u0131n tepesine kurulur. \u00d6rne\u011fin; \u0130ngiliz optik astronominin ana merkezi, Britanya Adalar\u0131\u2019daki ko\u015fullar\u0131n g\u00f6zlem i\u00e7in elveri\u015fsiz olmas\u0131ndan dolay\u0131 Kanarya Adalar\u0131\u2019na aktar\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bir teleskop i\u00e7in en iyi yer, g\u00f6zlem ko\u015fullar\u0131n\u0131n kusursuz oldu\u011fu uzay karanl\u0131\u011f\u0131d\u0131r. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde balonlarla ve yapma uydularla uzaya teleskoplar g\u00f6nderilmektedir. ABD\u2019nin f\u0131rlatt\u0131\u011f\u0131 insans\u0131z uzay arac\u0131 \u201cY\u00f6r\u00fcnge Astronomi G\u00f6zlemevi 2\u201dde (OAO-2) 11 teleskop bulunmaktad\u0131r. 1990\u2019da ise, Hubble Uzay Teleskopu f\u0131rlat\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r; ama teleskopun aynalar\u0131ndan biri ar\u0131zal\u0131 \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Gelecekte belki de Ay\u2019da teleskoplar kurulacak ve b\u00f6ylece herhangi bir atmosfer etkisinden uzak, son derece net g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcler elde edilebilecektir.
\n Uzaydaki cisimlerin yayd\u0131\u011f\u0131 pek \u00e7ok \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131m t\u00fcr\u00fc, D\u00fcnya\u2019y\u0131 \u00e7evreleyen atmosferin i\u00e7inden ge\u00e7emez. X \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131, mor\u00f6tesi ve k\u0131z\u0131l\u00f6tesi \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar bunlardan baz\u0131lar\u0131d\u0131r. Bu dalga boylar\u0131ndaki astronomi \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131, y\u00f6r\u00fcngedeki yapma uydulara yerle\u015ftirilen \u00f6zel teleskoplarla ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilir.<\/p>\n
D\u00dcRB\u00dcN<\/p>\n
D\u00fcrb\u00fcn, uzaktaki cisimlerig\u00f6zlemlemekte kullan\u0131lan ve i\u00e7ine g\u00f6zmercekleri(ok\u00fcler) yerle\u015ftirilmi\u015f iki t\u00fcpten olu\u015fan optik alete denir. Ayn\u0131 \u00e7er\u00e7eveye yerle\u015ftirilen t\u00fcplerdeki mercek sisteminin odak noktas\u0131 \u00e7o\u011funlukla tak bir ayar halkas\u0131yla yap\u0131l\u0131r, ama her t\u00fcp\u00fc ayarlanan d\u00fcrb\u00fcn t\u00fcrleri de vard\u0131r.
\n \u00c7o\u011fu d\u00fcrb\u00fcnde her t\u00fcp\u00fcn i\u00e7inde iki prizma vard\u0131r. Bu prizmalar, g\u00f6zmerce\u011finin ters \u00e7evirdi\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcy\u00fc yeniden do\u011frultur. Prizmalar, \u0131\u015f\u0131k \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n t\u00fcp\u00fcn i\u00e7inde katedece\u011fi uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131 artt\u0131rarak, d\u00fcrb\u00fcn\u00fcn uzunlu\u011funu azalt\u0131r. Ayr\u0131ca, objektif mercekleri aras\u0131ndaki uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131n, g\u00f6zmercekleri aras\u0131ndaki uzakl\u0131ktan daha fazla olmas\u0131n\u0131 olanakl\u0131 k\u0131larak daha iyi bir stereoskopik etkiye(uzak mesafelerdeki g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclerde derinlik \u00f6zelli\u011fi) yol a\u00e7arlar.
\n Merce\u011fin \u00e7ap\u0131, d\u00fcrb\u00fcn\u00fcn \u0131\u015f\u0131k toplama g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fcn bir \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fcd\u00fcr. Derinlik etkisinin \u00f6nemli olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 durumlarda, tekg\u00f6zmercekli(monok\u00fcler) d\u00fcrb\u00fcnler kullan\u0131l\u0131r. Bunlar temelde \u00e7ift t\u00fcpl\u00fc d\u00fcrb\u00fcnlerin yar\u0131ya b\u00f6l\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015f t\u00fcrleridir. Basit ve ucuz mercek sistemlerinden yap\u0131lan tiyatro d\u00fcrb\u00fcnlerinin g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 dard\u0131r ve b\u00fcy\u00fctme oranlar\u0131 2,5-4 aras\u0131nda de\u011fi\u015fir.<\/p>\n
M\u0130KROSKOP<\/p>\n
Mikroskop, \u00e7\u0131plak g\u00f6zle g\u00f6r\u00fclemeyecek kadar k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck cisimleri g\u00f6rmeye ve incelemeye yarayan ayg\u0131tt\u0131r. MERCEK madddesinde anlat\u0131lan basit b\u00fcy\u00fcte\u00e7ler bazen \u201cbasit mikroskop\u201d olarak tan\u0131mlan\u0131r; ama mikroskop deyimini, daha b\u00fcy\u00fck, daha karma\u015f\u0131k ve \u00e7ok daha etkili bir alet olan \u201cbile\u015fik mikroskop\u201d i\u00e7in kullanmak daha do\u011fru olur.
\n Mikroskopun olu\u015fturdu\u011fu g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcye do\u011frudan yada bir ekran \u00fczerine yans\u0131t\u0131l\u0131larak yada foto\u011fraf\u0131 \u00e7ekilerek bak\u0131labilir. Mikroskopla incelenen maddeler saydam yada saydams\u0131z olabilir. Bile\u015fik mikroskoplarda bakteri boyutlar\u0131ndaki cisimler incelenebilir, \u00f6te yandan elektron mikroskopuyla \u00e7ok k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck vir\u00fcslerin ve b\u00fcy\u00fck molek\u00fcllerin g\u00f6r\u00fclmesi olanakl\u0131d\u0131r.
\n Optik Mikroskop: (tarih\u00e7e) \u0130lk mikroskop t\u00fcr\u00fc 15.yy\u2019\u0131n ortalar\u0131ndan ba\u015flayarak b\u00fcy\u00fcte\u00e7 olarak kullan\u0131lan tek mercekli mikroskoptu. Geli\u015ftirdi\u011fi tekniklerle \u00e7ok y\u00fcksek nitelikli mercekler yapmay\u0131 ba\u015faran Felemenkli do\u011fabilimci Antonie van Leeuwenhoek(1632-1723), bunlara 2-3 mikrometre(0,002-0,003mm) \u00e7ap\u0131ndaki bakterileri incelemeyi ba\u015fard\u0131. O d\u00f6nemde b\u00f6yle tek mercekli mikroskoplar renkser sap\u0131n\u00e7(aberasyon) sorununu art\u0131ran bile\u015fik(iki yada daha fazla mercekli) mikroskoplara ye\u011flenmekteydi. \u0130lk bile\u015fik mikroskop, 1590-1609 aras\u0131ndaki d\u00f6nemde Felemenk\u2019te yap\u0131ld\u0131; bu t\u00fcr mikroskopu Hans Jansen, onun o\u011flu Zacharias ya da Hans Lippershey\u2019in buldu\u011fu kabul edilir. Bulunu\u015fundan k\u0131sa s\u00fcre sonra \u0130talyan ve \u0130ngiliz optik\u00e7ilerin yapt\u0131klar\u0131 bile\u015fik mikroskoplar yayg\u0131n olarak kullan\u0131lmaya ba\u015fland\u0131; ama bu mikroskoplarda kullan\u0131lan merceklerin renkser sap\u0131nc\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn renklenmesine ve bozulmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7\u0131yordu. \u0130lk olarak teleskoplarda kullan\u0131lan ve renkser sap\u0131nc\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde ortadan kald\u0131ran renksemez(akromatik) mercekler mikroskoplarda 18.yy\u2019\u0131n sonlar\u0131nda Hollanda\u2019da kullan\u0131lmaya ba\u015flad\u0131. Ayr\u0131l\u0131m\u0131(farkl\u0131 dalgaboylar\u0131ndaki \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n k\u0131r\u0131lma indisinin farkl\u0131 olmas\u0131 nedeniyle de\u011fi\u015fik renklerin farkl\u0131 miktarlarda k\u0131r\u0131larak birbirlerinden ayr\u0131lmas\u0131) d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck crown cam\u0131ndan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir d\u0131\u015fb\u00fcke(t\u00fcmsek) mercek ile ayr\u0131l\u0131m\u0131 y\u00fcksek flint cam\u0131ndan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir i\u00e7b\u00fckey(\u00e7ukur) merce\u011fin birle\u015ftirilmesiyle olu\u015fturulan renksemez merceklerin yap\u0131m\u0131na ili\u015fkin ilk kurumsal \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmay\u0131 \u0130ngiliz optik\u00e7i Joseph Jackson Lister ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirdi. (1830) mikroskop tasar\u0131m\u0131nda en \u00f6nemli geli\u015fme Alman fizik\u00e7i Ernst Abbe (1840-1905) taraf\u0131ndan ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirildi. Abbe, ya\u011fa dald\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f objektif tekni\u011fini (objektif ile incelenecek cisim aras\u0131na bir ya\u011f damlas\u0131n\u0131n yerle\u015ftirilmesi y\u00f6ntemi) buldu, cisim \u00fczerinde \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n yo\u011funla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flayan kondans\u00f6r\u00fc geli\u015ftirdi, merceklerin ay\u0131rma g\u00fcc\u00fc ve \u0131\u015f\u0131k toplama yeteneklerinin belirlenmesini sa\u011flayan \u201csay\u0131sal a\u00e7\u0131kl\u0131k\u201d kavram\u0131n\u0131 ortaya koydu ve y\u00fcksek nitelikli, sap\u0131n\u00e7s\u0131z apokromatik mercek sistemini geli\u015ftirdi. Abbe,mikroskopta ay\u0131rma g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fcn optik sistemin say\u0131sal a\u00e7\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fct\u00fclmesi ya da daha k\u0131sa dalgaboyu \u0131\u015f\u0131k kullan\u0131lmas\u0131yla y\u00fckseltilebilece\u011fini de belirledi. G\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr \u0131\u015f\u0131k kullan\u0131larak birinci y\u00f6ntemin kuramsal s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131na ula\u015ft\u0131ktan sonra, ikinci yolun denenmesine ge\u00e7ildi, b\u00f6ylece mor\u00f6tesi \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131mdan yararlanan mikroskoplar ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirildi, ama bu t\u00fcr mikroskoplar\u0131n yap\u0131m\u0131nda \u00f6nemli teknik zorluklarla kar\u015f\u0131la\u015f\u0131ld\u0131.1924\u2019de Frans\u0131z fizik\u00e7i Louis-Victor Broglie, elektron demetinin bir dalga demeti \u00f6zelli\u011fi g\u00f6sterdi\u011fini ortaya koydu. Elektron demetinin dalgaboyunun \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n dalga boyuna oranla \u00e7ok daha k\u0131sa olmas\u0131ndan yararlanarak 1930\u2019lu y\u0131llarda elektron mikroskopu ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirildi. Elektron mikroskopuyla elde edilen b\u00fcy\u00fctme g\u00fcc\u00fc 50 binin \u00fcst\u00fcndedir.
\n Bile\u015fik Mikroskop: Tek bir yak\u0131nsak mercekten olu\u015fan ve yal\u0131n mikroskop olarakta bilinen b\u00fcy\u00fcte\u00e7lerle 20\u2019den y\u00fcksek b\u00fcy\u00fctme g\u00fcc\u00fc elde edilmesinde merce\u011fin sap\u0131n\u00e7 \u00f6zelliklerinden kaynaklanan \u00f6nemli sorunlar ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar. G\u00fcnl\u00fck ya\u015famda kullan\u0131lan b\u00fcy\u00fctme g\u00fcc\u00fc d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck b\u00fcy\u00fcte\u00e7lerin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra duyarl\u0131 mekanik ayg\u0131r yap\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6zlerine k\u0131st\u0131rarak kulland\u0131klar\u0131 ve saat\u00e7i g\u00f6zl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc denilen b\u00fcy\u00fcte\u00e7ler yal\u0131n mikroskoplar\u0131n g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde yararlan\u0131lan \u00f6rnekleridir. \u00c7ift d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey yada d\u00fczlem d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey (bir y\u00fcz\u00fc d\u00fczlemsel di\u011feri d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey) bir yak\u0131nsak mercek olan b\u00fcy\u00fcte\u00e7te g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc sanal ve d\u00fczd\u00fcr. Bile\u015fik mikroskopta temel olarak iki yak\u0131nsak mercek bulunur. Bunlardan incelenecek cisme bakan merce\u011fe objektif(cismin merce\u011fi) , g\u00f6ze yak\u0131n olanada g\u00f6zmerce\u011fi(ok\u00fcler) denir. \u0130ncelenecek cisim \u00fczerine ya bir i\u00e7b\u00fckey ayna yada bir \u0131\u015f\u0131k kayna\u011f\u0131 ile bir yak\u0131nsak mercek sisteminden(kondas\u00f6r) olu\u015fan ayd\u0131nlatma sistemi arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla odaklanm\u0131\u015f \u0131\u015f\u0131k d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcr\u00fcl\u00fcr. Objektif ile g\u00f6zmerce\u011fi uygun bir mekanizma arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla birbirlerine g\u00f6re ileri-geri, yada \u00f6rne\u011fin yerle\u015ftirildikleri tabla a\u015fa\u011f\u0131-yukar\u0131 hareket ettirilebilir ve b\u00f6ylece objektif ile cisim aras\u0131ndaki uzakl\u0131k \u00e7ok duyarl\u0131 bir bi\u00e7imde ayarlanabilir.
\n Objektifin odak uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fctme g\u00fcc\u00fc d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck mikroskoplarda 25-75mm,orta b\u00fcy\u00fctmeli mikroskoplarda 8-16mm, y\u00fcksek b\u00fcy\u00fctmeli mikroskoplarda ise 2-4mm\u2019dir. \u00c7ok k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck odak uzakl\u0131klar\u0131 ya\u011fa dald\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f objektiflerde kullan\u0131l\u0131r. Cisim objektifin odak noktas\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6n\u00fcne ve oda\u011fa \u00e7ok yak\u0131n olarak yerle\u015ftirilir, bu durumda objektifin arka odak d\u00fczleminin gerisinde, cisme g\u00f6re ters ve b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ger\u00e7ek g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc elde edilir. Bu g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn cisme oranla b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc, 2 ile 100 aras\u0131ndad\u0131r. Bu g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc, b\u00fcy\u00fcte\u00e7 olarak \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan ve sanal g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc olu\u015fturan g\u00f6zmerce\u011fi taraf\u0131ndan daha da b\u00fcy\u00fct\u00fcl\u00fcr.
\n Bir mikroskopun yaln\u0131zca cismin b\u00fcy\u00fct\u00fclm\u00fc\u015f bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc vermesi yeterli de\u011fildir;cisme ili\u015fkin ince ayr\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131n da g\u00f6r\u00fclebilmesi, bu nedenle de g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn keskin olmas\u0131 gerekir. G\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn keskinli\u011fini s\u0131n\u0131rlayan ise merce\u011fin sap\u0131n\u00e7 kusurlar\u0131d\u0131r. Bu kusurlar\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda fakl\u0131 dalgaboyundaki \u0131\u015f\u0131k \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131 i\u00e7in(k\u0131r\u0131lma indisinin farkl\u0131 olmas\u0131ndan dolay\u0131 ) odak noktalar\u0131n\u0131n farkl\u0131 olmas\u0131ndan kaynaklanan ve g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn kenarlar\u0131nda renk sa\u00e7aklar\u0131 olu\u015fmas\u0131na neden olan renkser sap\u0131n\u00e7 gelir. Renkser sap\u0131n\u00e7, yak\u0131nsak merce\u011fe, ayr\u0131l\u0131m\u0131 daha y\u00fcksek camdan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f uygun bir \u0131raksak merce\u011fin eklenmesiyle giderilebilir. Mercek y\u00fczeylerinin k\u00fcresel olmas\u0131ndan kaynaklanan k\u00fcresel sap\u0131n\u00e7ta g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn bulan\u0131kla\u015fmas\u0131na neden olur. Sap\u0131n\u00e7lar\u0131 ortadan kald\u0131rmak i\u00e7in tasar\u0131mlanan mercek sisteminin yap\u0131s\u0131 merce\u011fin b\u00fcy\u00fctmesi y\u00fckseldik\u00e7e karma\u015f\u0131kla\u015f\u0131r, dolay\u0131s\u0131yla yap\u0131m maliyeti y\u00fckselir. Y\u00fcksek ay\u0131rma g\u00fcc\u00fc elde edebilmek i\u00e7in d\u00fczeltilmesi gereken d\u00f6rt sap\u0131n\u00e7 t\u00fcr\u00fc daha vard\u0131r:Koma(g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc ekseninin belirli b\u00f6l\u00fcmlerinde g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn bozulmas\u0131), astigmatl\u0131k, distorsiyon(g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn \u00e7arp\u0131lmas\u0131) ve alan e\u011frili\u011fi. B\u00fct\u00fcn bu sap\u0131n\u00e7lar\u0131 belirli \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde d\u00fczeltmek amac\u0131yla \u00e7e\u015fitli mercek sistemleri tasar\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bunlar\u0131 renksemez(akromatik), apokramatik ve yar\u0131apokromatik(fl\u00fcorit) mercekler olarak \u00fc\u00e7 genel s\u0131n\u0131fa ay\u0131rmak olanakl\u0131d\u0131r. Fotomikroskopide b\u00fcy\u00fck sak\u0131ncalar yaratan alan e\u011frili\u011fi kusurunu gidermek amac\u0131yla \u201cd\u00fcz alanl\u0131 mercek\u201d olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan \u00f6zel mercek sistemleri geli\u015ftirilmi\u015ftir. G\u00f6zmerce\u011fi genellikle iki ayr\u0131 mercekten olu\u015fur; bunlardan g\u00f6ze yak\u0131n olan\u0131 renkser sap\u0131nc\u0131 engellemek amac\u0131yla crown-flint camlar\u0131ndan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f mercek \u00e7ifti bi\u00e7imindedir. Objektifte tam olarak giderilemeyen kusurlar\u0131 dengelemek \u00fczere \u00f6zel olarak tasar\u0131mlanan g\u00f6zmerce\u011fi ayr\u0131ca g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcde yer belirlemeye yarayan g\u00f6stergeler ya da g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc \u00fczerinde kafes bi\u00e7iminde bir desen olu\u015fturan \u00e7izgiler i\u00e7erir.
\n\u00d6zel Mikroskop T\u00fcrleri: Stereoskopik mikroskoplar birbirine \u00f6zde\u015f iki mikroskoptan olu\u015fur. Bunlar\u0131n eksenleri aras\u0131nda yakla\u015f\u0131k 16 derecelik bir a\u00e7\u0131 vard\u0131r, b\u00f6ylece iki eksenin incelenecek cisim \u00fczerinde kesi\u015fmesi sa\u011flan\u0131r, bu t\u00fcr mikroskoplarla cismin stereoskopik bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc elde edilir. G\u00f6zlenen cismin d\u00fcz g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc elde etmek i\u00e7in prizma kullan\u0131l\u0131r. Tek bir objektifi bulunan ve \u0131\u015f\u0131k \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131 ikiye ay\u0131rarak iki g\u00f6zmerce\u011fine y\u00f6nelten t\u00fcrden stereoskopik mikroskoplar da yayg\u0131n olarak kullan\u0131l\u0131r.
\nUltramikroskop, koloit (as\u0131lt\u0131) par\u00e7ac\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 incelemek amac\u0131yla 1903\u2019te geli\u015ftirilmi\u015ftir. Adi mikroskopla ga\u00f6zlenemeyecek kadar k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck olan bu par\u00e7ac\u0131klar, g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir \u0131\u015f\u0131k kayna\u011f\u0131 arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla mikroskop eksenine dik do\u011frultuda \u0131\u015f\u0131kla ayd\u0131nlat\u0131l\u0131r. Parcac\u0131klar\u0131n sa\u00e7\u0131l\u0131ma u\u011fratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u0131\u015f\u0131k karanl\u0131k zemin \u00f6n\u00fcnde olu\u015fan par\u0131lt\u0131lar bi\u00e7iminde g\u00f6zlenir. Bu y\u00f6ntemle 5-10 milimikron \u00e7ap\u0131ndaki par\u00e7ac\u0131klar\u0131n olu\u015fturdu\u011fu par\u0131lt\u0131lar\u0131n g\u00f6zlenmesi olanakl\u0131d\u0131r.
\nMetalurji mikroskoplar\u0131 \u0131\u015f\u0131k ge\u00e7irmeyen malzemelerin, \u00f6zellikle metallerin yap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 incelemek amac\u0131yla kullan\u0131l\u0131r. \u0130ncelenecek \u00f6rnek, y\u00fcz\u00fc a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 gelecek bi\u00e7imde yerle\u015ftirilir ve alttan d\u00fc\u015fey olarak ayd\u0131nlat\u0131l\u0131r. Bu t\u00fcr mikroskoplar genellikle foto\u011fraf makinesiyle donat\u0131lm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r.
\n Mikroskopta olu\u015fan g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn kontrastl\u0131\u011f\u0131, \u00f6rne\u011fin \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131 so\u011furma niteli\u011finden kaynaklan\u0131r; kontrastl\u0131\u011f\u0131 art\u0131rmak i\u00e7in genellikle \u00f6rne\u011fin boyanmas\u0131 gerekir. Canl\u0131 h\u00fccrelerin ve benzer saydam cisimlerin incelenmesinde, boyaman\u0131n olanaks\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan dolay\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck zorlukla kar\u015f\u0131la\u015f\u0131l\u0131r. Faz kontrastl\u0131 mikroskoplar ve giri\u015fimli mikroskoplar \u00f6rne\u011fin herhangi bir i\u015flemden ge\u00e7irilmesine gerek kalmaks\u0131z\u0131n, kontrast\u0131n optik y\u00f6ntemlerle y\u00fckseltilmesini sa\u011flayan ve \u00f6zellikle biyolojide yayg\u0131n kullan\u0131m alan\u0131 olan mikroskop t\u00fcrleridir.
\n Mikroskopun ay\u0131rma g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc y\u00fckseltmenin bir yolu k\u0131sa dalga boylu \u0131\u015f\u0131k kullanmakt\u0131r. Bu ama\u00e7la ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilen ve mor \u00f6tesi \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131mdan yararlanan mikroskoplarda incelenecek \u00f6rnek mor \u00f6tesi \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131mla ayd\u0131nlat\u0131l\u0131r. Bu t\u00fcr mikroskopta merceklerin kuvarstan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131 gerekir. Mor\u00f6tesi \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131m mikroskopu adi mikroskopa oranla iki kat y\u00fcksek ay\u0131rma g\u00fcc\u00fc sa\u011flar; ama bu mikroskop t\u00fcr\u00fc, odaklama g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fckleri ve g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn yaln\u0131zca foto\u011fraf arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla elde edilebilmesi y\u00fcz\u00fcnden yayg\u0131nla\u015famam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Mor\u00f6tesi \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131ma duyarl\u0131 televizyon kameralar\u0131n\u0131n geli\u015ftirilmesiyle mor\u00f6tesi \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131m mikroskopu daha kullan\u0131\u015fl\u0131 bir yap\u0131ya kavu\u015fmu\u015ftur. Mor\u00f6tesi \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131m\u0131n \u00f6rnekte olu\u015fturdu\u011fu fl\u00fcor\u0131\u015f\u0131madan yararlanan fl\u00fcor\u0131\u015f\u0131mal\u0131 mikroskoplar da \u00f6zellikle biyoloji ve t\u0131pta kullan\u0131l\u0131r.
\n Aynalarda renkser sap\u0131nca hi\u00e7 bulunmamas\u0131, odak uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr \u0131\u015f\u0131k i\u00e7inde, mor\u00f6tesi ve k\u0131z\u0131l\u00f6tesi \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131mlar \u0131\u00e7in de ayn\u0131 kalmas\u0131 yans\u0131t\u0131c\u0131 (mercek yerine ayna kullanan) mikroskop yap\u0131m\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesini do\u011furmu\u015ftur. B\u00f6yle bir mikroskopta ayna kullanma zorunlulu\u011fu vard\u0131r; k\u00fcresel olmayan aynalar\u0131n yap\u0131m\u0131 ise olduk\u00e7a zordur. Ayr\u0131ca ayna y\u00fczeylerinin atmosfer etkisiyle bozulup kararmas\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck bi sorun olmaktayd\u0131.
\n \u00d6teki mikroskop t\u00fcrleri aras\u0131nda \u00f6zellikle jeoloji ve kristalografide kullan\u0131lan ve incelenecek \u00f6rne\u011fin kutuplanm\u0131\u015f \u0131\u015f\u0131kla ayd\u0131nlat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 kutuplay\u0131c\u0131 mikroskop; daha \u00e7ok silisyum kristallerindeki kusurlar\u0131n incelenmesinde ve sahte sanat \u00fcr\u00fcnlerinin belirlenmesinde yararlan\u0131lan k\u0131z\u0131l\u00f6tesi \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131m\u0131n mikroskopu; laser \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 ve x \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131 kullanan mikroskoplar ile \u00e7ok y\u00fcksek frekansl\u0131 ses\u00fcst\u00fc dalgalardan yararlanan \u00e7ok y\u00fcksek ay\u0131rma g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc akustik mikroskoplar say\u0131labilir.
\n Elktron Mikroskopu: Frans\u0131z fizik\u00e7i Louis-Victor Broglie 1924\u2019te, o d\u00f6neme de\u011fin maddesel par\u00e7ac\u0131k olarak kabul edilen elektronlar\u0131n ve \u00f6teki par\u00e7ac\u0131klar\u0131n ayn\u0131 zamanda dalga \u00f6zelli\u011fi g\u00f6sterdi\u011fini ortaya koydu. Elektronlar\u0131n dalga yap\u0131s\u0131 1927\u2019de deneysel olarak hesapland\u0131. Par\u00e7ac\u0131klar\u0131n bir dalga olarak sahip olduklar\u0131 dalga boyunu veren ve Broglie\u2019nin ortaya koydu\u011fu e\u015fitli\u011fe g\u00f6re, \u00f6rne\u011fin 60.000 voltla h\u0131zland\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f elektronlar\u0131n etkin dalga boyu 0,05 angstr\u00f6md\u00fcr, bir ba\u015fka deyi\u015fle ye\u015fil \u0131\u015f\u0131n dalga buyunun 100.000\u2019de 1\u2019ine e\u015fittir. Bu nedenle mikroskopta \u0131\u015f\u0131k yerine b\u00f6yle bir dalgan\u0131n kullan\u0131lmas\u0131 durumunda ay\u0131rma g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fcn \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde artmas\u0131 beklenebilir. Elektrostatik ve magnetik alanlar\u0131n elektronlardan ya da ba\u015fka y\u00fckl\u00fc par\u00e7ac\u0131klardan olu\u015fan demetleri sapt\u0131rabildi\u011fi ve odaklayabildi\u011finin 1926\u2019da kan\u0131tlanmas\u0131 \u00fczerine ayr\u0131 bir fizik dal\u0131 olarak elektronopti\u011fi ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. \u0130lk elektron mikroskopu 1933\u2019te ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirildi; optik mikroskoplarla elde edilebilen ay\u0131rma g\u00fcc\u00fc elektron mikroskopu kullan\u0131larak bir ka\u00e7 y\u0131l i\u00e7inde a\u015f\u0131ld\u0131. \u0130lk ticari elektron mikroskopunun yap\u0131m\u0131na 1935\u2019te \u0130ngiltere\u2019de ba\u015fland\u0131. Bunu Almanya ve ABD izledi. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde elektron mikroskoplar\u0131yla 3 angstr\u00f6mden k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck uzunluklar se\u00e7ilebilmekte, b\u00f6ylece b\u00fcy\u00fck molek\u00fcllerin do\u011frudan g\u00f6zlenmesi olanakl\u0131 olmaktad\u0131r.
\n Optik Mikroskopa G\u00f6re Farklar: Elektronlar hava i\u00e7inde heve molek\u00fclleri ile \u00e7arp\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131ndan \u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fc yol alamad\u0131klar\u0131ndan, elektron demetinin ge\u00e7ti\u011fi yolda havan\u0131n bo\u015falt\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131 gerekir. Bu nedenle canl\u0131 \u00f6rnekler elektron mikroskopuyla incelenemez. Optik mikroskopta merceklerin odak uzakl\u0131klar\u0131 sabittir ve odaklama i\u00e7in \u00f6rne\u011fin objektife uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131 de\u011fi\u015ftirilir. Elektron mikroskopunda kullan\u0131lan elektrostatik ya da magnetik alan merceklerin odak uzakl\u0131klar\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fkendir ve kolayl\u0131kla ayarlanabilir; bu nedenle mercekler aras\u0131ndaki uzakl\u0131k ve \u00f6rne\u011fin objektife uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131 sabit tutulur. Optik teleskoplarda genellikle sanal g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc elde edilir; elektron mikroskopunda ise g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc ger\u00e7ektir, bu nedenle fl\u00fcor\u0131\u015f\u0131n bir ekran \u00fczerinde olu\u015fturularak do\u011frudan g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr duruma getirilebilir ya da film \u00fczerinde olu\u015fturularak foto\u011fraf\u0131 elde edilebilir. Optik mikroskopta g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc, \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n, incelenen \u00f6rnek taraf\u0131ndan so\u011furulmas\u0131 sonucunda olu\u015fur; elektron mikroskopunda ise g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcy\u00fc olu\u015fturan, elektronlar\u0131n, \u00f6rnekteki atomlar taraf\u0131ndan sa\u00e7\u0131l\u0131ma u\u011frat\u0131lmas\u0131d\u0131r. A\u011f\u0131r (atom numaras\u0131 y\u00fcksek) atomlar elektronlar\u0131 daha kolay sa\u00e7\u0131l\u0131ma u\u011fratt\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan incelenen \u00f6rnekte ne kadar \u00e7ok a\u011f\u0131r atom varsa g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn kontrastl\u0131\u011f\u0131 da o oranda y\u00fcksek olur. Elektron mikroskopunda elektron demetini sapt\u0131rma yada odaklama amac\u0131yla kullan\u0131lan mercekler elektrostatik ya da elektromagnetik merceklerdir. En yal\u0131n elektrostatik mercek i\u00e7 i\u00e7e iki e\u015feksenli metal silindirden ya da art arda yerle\u015ftirilmi\u015f iki metal levhadan olu\u015fur.
\n Ge\u00e7i\u015fli Elektron Mikroskopu: Elektron demetini incelenen \u00f6rne\u011fin i\u00e7inden ge\u00e7erek g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc olu\u015fturdu\u011fu \u00e7e\u015fitli elektron mikroskoplar\u0131nda ba\u015fl\u0131ca \u00fc\u00e7 b\u00f6l\u00fcm bulunur: 1) Elektron demetini \u00fcreten ve \u00f6rne\u011fe odaklayan b\u00f6l\u00fcm 2) G\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcy\u00fc olu\u015fturan b\u00f6l\u00fcm 3) G\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc izleme b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc
\n Elektron demetini olu\u015fturan b\u00f6l\u00fcm elektron tabancas\u0131 olarak adland\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r. Mikroskopun elektron tabancas\u0131ndan ekrana ya da filme kadar t\u00fcm b\u00f6l\u00fcmlerinin elektronlar\u0131n\u0131n serbest\u00e7e yol almalar\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flamak \u00fczere havas\u0131 bo\u015falt\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir sistem i\u00e7inde bulundurulmas\u0131 gerekir.
\n Y\u00fcksek Gerilimli Mikroskoplar: Al\u0131\u015f\u0131lagelmi\u015f elektron mikroskoplar\u0131nda elektronlar\u0131 h\u0131zland\u0131ran gerilimin de\u011feri 100 kilovolt civar\u0131ndad\u0131r. Buna kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k, 1.200.000 voltluk gerilimler kullanan mikroskoplarda yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Y\u00fcksek gerilim kullanman\u0131n \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fcklerini \u015f\u00f6yle s\u0131ralayabiliriz: 1) Gerilim y\u00fckseldik\u00e7e, elektron h\u0131z\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fcr 2) H\u0131zl\u0131 elektronlar al\u0131n \u00f6rneklerden daha \u00e7abuk ge\u00e7er 3) Enerji kay\u0131plar\u0131ndan kaynaklanan renkser sap\u0131n\u00e7 artar 4) \u00d6rnek daha az \u0131s\u0131n\u0131r, bozucu etkiler azal\u0131r 5) Elektron k\u0131r\u0131n\u0131m desenlerinin ay\u0131rma g\u00fcc\u00fc y\u00fckselir. Y\u00fcksek h\u0131zl\u0131 elktronlar\u0131n yolu \u00fczerindeki cisimlere \u00e7arpmas\u0131yla ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan x \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n mikroskop kullananlara zarar vermemesi i\u00e7in de gerekli \u00f6nlemlerin al\u0131nmas\u0131 gerekir.
\n Tar\u0131y\u0131c\u0131 Elektron Mikroskopu: Cisimlerin y\u00fczeyini incelemek \u00fczere geli\u015ftirilen tar\u0131y\u0131c\u0131 elktron mikroskopunda uygun bir sapt\u0131r\u0131c\u0131 d\u00fczenek arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla bir elktron demetinin incelenecek y\u00fczeyi s\u00fcrekli olarak taramas\u0131 sa\u011flan\u0131r. Y\u00fczeye \u00e7arpan elektronlar y\u00fczeyden ikincil elektronlar\u0131n f\u0131rlamas\u0131na yol a\u00e7ar. Bu ikincil elektronlar bir k\u0131rp\u0131\u015f\u0131m kristaline (elektronlar\u0131n \u00e7arpmas\u0131yla k\u0131sa s\u00fcreli ani \u0131\u015f\u0131k parlamalar\u0131 olu\u015fturan kristal) g\u00f6nderilir.kristalde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan parlamalar bir foto\u00e7o\u011falt\u0131c\u0131 lamba arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla y\u00fczbinlerce kez y\u00fckseltilerek elektrik sinyaline d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fcr. Bu elektrik sinyali bir katot \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n lambadaki (televizyon g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc t\u00fcp\u00fc) g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn parlakl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 denetler. Katot \u0131\u015f\u0131nl\u0131 lamban\u0131n ekran\u0131n\u0131 denetleyen demetin mikroskopla incelenecek y\u00fczeyi tarayan demetle e\u015fzamanl\u0131 tarama yapmas\u0131 sa\u011flan\u0131r. B\u00f6ylece lamba ekran\u0131ndaki bir noktan\u0131n parlakl\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00f6rne\u011fin y\u00fcz\u00fcnde bu noktaya kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k gelen noktada sal\u0131nan ikincil elektronlar\u0131n say\u0131s\u0131yla orant\u0131l\u0131 olur. Sonu\u00e7 olarak ekranda incelenen y\u00fczeyin yap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6steren bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc elde edilir.
\n Elektron Sondal\u0131 Mikro\u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmleyici: 1947\u2019de geli\u015ftirilen elektron sondal\u0131 mikro\u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmleyici \u00f6rnekteki elementleri b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ay\u0131rma g\u00fcc\u00fc ile belirleyebilmektedir. Elektron sondali mikro\u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmleyici \u00f6zellikle mineraloji ve metalurjide yayg\u0131n olarak kullan\u0131l\u0131r.
\n Alan Etkili Mikroskop: Alan etkisiyle sal\u0131m olgusundan yararlanarak \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan bu ayg\u0131t, temel olarak, bir katot \u0131\u015f\u0131nl\u0131 lamba i\u00e7ine yerle\u015ftirilmi\u015f \u00e7ok ince bir telden olu\u015fur. G\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir elektrik alan\u0131n\u0131n etkisiyle telin ucandan elektronlar f\u0131rlar; bu elktronlar lamban\u0131n fl\u00fcor\u0131\u015f\u0131n ekran\u0131na d\u00fc\u015ferek ekranda ince telin ucunu g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc olu\u015fturur. B\u00f6yle bir ayg\u0131tta b\u00fcy\u00fctme, fl\u00fcor\u0131\u015f\u0131n ekran\u0131n\u0131n e\u011frilik yar\u0131 \u00e7ap\u0131 ile telin ucunun yar\u0131 \u00e7ap\u0131 aras\u0131ndaki orana e\u015fittir. Bu y\u00f6ntemle yaln\u0131zca y\u00fcksek s\u0131cakl\u0131klara dayan\u0131kl\u0131 tungsten, platin, molibden gibi metaller incelenebilir, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc telin ucunda ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan y\u00fcksek ak\u0131m yo\u011funlu\u011fu y\u00fczden b\u00fcy\u00fck \u0131s\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131\u011fa \u00e7\u0131kar.
\n Alan etkili mikroskopun de\u011fi\u015fik bir t\u00fcr de kristal yap\u0131s\u0131ndaki kusurlar\u0131 do\u011frudan incelenmesine olanak sa\u011flayan alan etkili iyon mikroskopudur.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
MERCEKLER VE AYNALAR Ayna, insan\u0131n kendisini g\u00f6rmesi i\u00e7in kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 cam veya maden levhad\u0131r. Mercek ise i\u00e7inden ge\u00e7en paralel \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131 birbirine yakla\u015ft\u0131ran ya da uzakla\u015ft\u0131ran saydam bir cisimdir. \u0130nsan g\u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fcn g\u00f6rmesini g\u00f6z merce\u011fi sa\u011flar. G\u00f6rme bozuklu\u011funu gidermek i\u00e7in merceklerden olu\u015fan g\u00f6zl\u00fck tak\u0131l\u0131r. Foto\u011fraf makinesi ve b\u00fcy\u00fcte\u00e7 de, mercekle \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan ara\u00e7lard\u0131r. Mikrokskop, teleskop ve di\u011fer bir\u00e7ok \u00f6l\u00e7me …<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1407,1403],"tags":[2739,2741,2735,2737,2738,2744,2742,2734,2743,2745,2746,2736,2740,2728],"class_list":["post-912","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-fen-ve-teknoloji-odevleri","category-odevler","tag-disbukey","tag-elektromanyetik","tag-fotograf-makinesi","tag-geometri","tag-konveks","tag-kornea","tag-mercek-cesitleri","tag-mercekler-ve-aynalar","tag-merceklerin-kullanildigi-yerler","tag-merceklerin-yapimi-ve-tarihi","tag-mercekli-teleskoplar","tag-mikrokskop","tag-optik","tag-teleskop"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/912","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=912"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/912\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=912"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=912"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.islamidavet.com\/kutuphane\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=912"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}